Unit 4: Political Organization of Space

Unit 4: Political Organization of Space
Chapter 8: Political Geography

Key Issue #1: Where Are States Located?
After Cold War & fall of Communism in Eastern Europe/USSR – many changes in political geography, U.S. power dwindling somewhat 1940s – about 50 countries & some unclaimed land 2007 – 192 countries per UN & nearly all inhabitable land occupied by a country Now – 193 UN member countries (South Sudan), 2 observer states (Vatican City & Palestine), & 11 other states (disputed, partially or fully unrecognized) Criteria for a state (state = country): Sovereignty – independence from control of its internal affairs by other states Defined borders & territory Permanent population Acting government International recognition A state is an example of a formal/uniform region

Problems of defining states Antarctica – only large landmass not part of a state portions claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, & UK (all disputed claims) 1959 & 1991 Treaty of Antarctica allowed research but no military operations Korea: 1 state or 2? Once a colony of Japan Divided into 2 zones along 38° N parallel North (USSR) as communist; South (U.S.) as democratic (U.S. & USSR withdrew in 1940s) 1950 – North invaded the South (3-year war); no change to division; communist China aided the North North Korea (Democratic People’s Republic of Korea) – ruled by dictator, building nuclear weapons, people lack food/electricity/etc. 1992 – North & South admitted to UN as separate countries South Korea (Republic of Korea) Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) – 2.5 mile buffer zone spanning both sides of the 38th parallel

Problems of defining states China & Taiwan: 1 state or 2? China (People’s Republic of China) considers Taiwan a part of China Taiwan agreed until 1999; however, they considered Taiwan to be the legitimate Chinese government 1940s – civil war between Nationalists (Chiang Kai-Shek) & Communists (Mao Tse-Tung); Communists won & Nationalists fled to Taiwan (Formosa) Most countries recognize the 2 countries as separate countries (but with very careful wording to not upset China) U.S. supported Nationalists & saw Taiwan as the official Chinese government until 1971 (Nixon visited China) Taiwan (Republic of China) is most populous country not in the UN; recognized by 21 UN members & Vatican City Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands (Who owns it?) Claimed by Japan, China, and Taiwan; controlled by Japan; uninhabited South Kuril Islands (4 southern islands of the Kurils) (Who owns it?) Inhabited by Ainu people; claimed by Russia and Japan Japan once claimed all of the Kuril Islands and the large island of Sakhalin to their north (parts of Russia)

Problems of defining states Western Sahara (Sahrawi Republic) – southern Morocco Most African countries consider it a sovereign state (member of African Union); recognition by 84 UN countries Morocco claims as its own – built a 3,000 mile wall/barrier around Controlled by Spain until 1976 (Morocco was a French colony) Mauritania claimed some territory but withdrew after 3 years & Morocco claimed all of it Polisario Front – group that declared independent country of Sahrawi Rep. Cease-fire in 1991 between Polisario & Morocco (UN involvement) 2 cities in Morocco – Ceuta & Melilla – on Mediterranean, controlled by Spain, given limited autonomy in 1994, most want to remain with Spain

Degrees of International Recognition
UN members without full recognition: Armenia (1 – Pakistan), Cyprus (1 – Turkey), North Korea (2 – Japan & South Korea), South Korea (1 – North Korea), Israel (32 – mostly Muslim countries; recognized by the PLO since 1993 & Israel recognizes the PLO as the sole authority of the Palestinian people) Non-UN members with some recognition by UN members: Abkhazia (4 – Russia, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Tuvalu), Taiwan (21 & Vatican), Kosovo (108), Northern Cyprus (1), Palestine (136 & Vatican, NOT Israel), Sahrawi Republic (84), South Ossetia (3 – Russia, Nicaragua, Venezuela) Palestine is a non-voting observer state for UN purposes Recognized only by non-UN members: Nagorno-Karabakh, Pridnestrovian Republic (Transnistria) Fully unrecognized: Somaliland No legitimate claim: micronations (self-proclaimed, tiny model-countries not recognized as independent) such as Sealand, The Conch Republic, The Principality of Hutt River, Molossia, NowhereIsland, etc.)

Varying Sizes of States Largest – Russia; 6.6 million square miles (11% of world’s land); 4,300 miles long (across 11 time zones) Next largest – China, Canada, U.S., Brazil, Australia in land area (Canada is 2nd if water territory is included) Approximately 2 dozen microstates (very small) Smallest – Vatican City (0.17 sq. miles) Vatican City is a non-voting observer state for UN purposes Monaco – smallest UN member (0.78 sq. miles) Other microstates – Andorra, San Marino, Liechtenstein, Malta (in Europe); Antigua & Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent & the Grenadines (in Caribbean); Kiribati, Nauru, Palau, Micronesia, Tonga, Tuvalu (in Pacific); Maldives, Seychelles (in Indian O.), Singapore in Asia, Sao Tome & Principe in Africa Most microstates are islands or small island groups Microstate IS NOT the same as micronation

Development of the State concept Ancient States Fertile Crescent – between Persian Gulf & Mediterranean; eastern portion in Mesopotamia (between Tigris & Euphrates); Nile River Valley near Fertile Crescent (often included) Crossroads of Europe, Africa, & Asia – center for land & sea trade & communication City-state – a city/town & its surrounding countryside Surrounding area used for food, goods, & defense; city surrounded by walls City-states often attacked one another – empires formed by dominance over other city states (Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Phoenicians, Hittites, Akkadians, Israelites) Egyptian Empire along Nile lasted almost 3,000 years

Development of the State concept Early European States Roman Empire – Europe, N. Africa, SW Asia (Spain to Iran & Egypt to England) Empire contained 38 provinces at its height; laws used in Rome were same all over empire Collapsed in 400s AD due to internal disputes, weakened leadership, & attacks by tribes within or just outside of the empire European portion divided into land controlled by competing kings, dukes, barons, lords, and other nobles (Feudalism) Serfs/peasants forced to live and work on nobles’ lands & fight for the nobles Kings emerged as most powerful 1100 AD and onward (Monarchy) – consolidation of nobles’ lands formed most of Western Europe (England, France, Spain) Germany, Italy, & other Eastern European areas remained fragmented or under larger empires until 19th & 20th centuries

Colonialism Colony – territory legally tied to a sovereign state (may be only military/foreign policy control but may include internal & economic control) Europeans controlled much of the world via colonialism (impose political, economic & cultural principles on settled territory) – make money via economic trade & exploitation of resources) Colonialism practiced in uninhabited or sparsely inhabited territory “God, Gold, & Glory” – spread of Christianity, acquire resources & money from colonies, # & size of colonies represented power for country 1400s – looking for trade with Asia via sea; encountered western & southern Africa and eventually the Americas Built cities & trading ports on coasts because of trade & ocean access to Europe Independence in U.S., Latin America, & Canada in 1700s & 1800s Europeans turned their interest to Africa & Asia

Imperialism Related to colonialism – difference is imperialism is control of already occupied territory (subject existing population to foreign control) Britain – largest colonial/imperial empire (Canada, South Asia, portions of east & south Africa, Australia, portions of Middle East, islands in Pacific & Caribbean) France – 2nd largest (portions of north & west Africa, SE Asia, islands in Pacific & Caribbean) Other empires – Portugal, Spain, Germany, Italy, Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium German colonial influence in Africa ended after WWI (1918) U.S. imperialism – Hawaii, Guam, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, Cuba & Philippines after Spanish American War Colonial Practices France – attempted to assimilate into French culture; close ties remain with France British – different structures for different colonies – acknowledged diversity & protected cultures, mostly peaceful transitions (exceptions: Ireland, Middle East, South Africa, problems in division of India); many former colonies belong to British Commonwealth of Nations (53 members)

Remaining Colonies/Territories/Dependencies Many African & Asian colonies gained independence (decolonization) following WWII (1945) – many country boundaries relate to former colonial boundaries Most remaining colonies in Pacific or Caribbean Hong Kong (UK) returned to China in 1997 Macau (Portugal) returned to China in 1999 Puerto Rico – most populous colony; U.S. commonwealth; 4 million people; citizens of U.S.; no U.S. Congress representation; do not factor into U.S. national elections; some want to remain a commonwealth but others want U.S. statehood; not considered a dependency due to high degree of autonomy France – French Polynesia, Mayotte, New Caledonia, etc. Netherlands – Neth. Antilles, Aruba UK – British Virgin Islands, Pitcairn, Bermuda, Cayman Is., Falkland Islands, South Georgia Is., Turks & Caicos, Anguilla, Montserrat, etc. U.S. – Guam, U.S. Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Marshall Is., etc. Greenland not considered a colony/dependency due to high level of autonomy Does not include uninhabited islands like Baker & Midway islands of U.S. in Pacific Political Hierarchy (largest to smallest) Empire, State, Province, County

Forward Capitals Newly independent countries often established capitals in major colonial port cities Capitals are often relocated to more centrally located regions or to peripheral regions to promote greater control and development Examples: Pakistan: Karachi to Islamabad in 1960s Kazakhstan: Almaty to Astana in 1997 Brazil: Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia in 1960 Nigeria: Lagos to Abuja in 1991 Myanmar/Burma: Yangon/Rangoon to Naypyidaw in 2006 Ivory Coast/Cote d’Ivoire: Abidjan to Yamoussoukro in 1983 Tanzania: Dar es Salaam to Dodoma in 1996 Malaysia: functions relocated from Kuala Lumpur to Putrajaya in 1999 due to overcrowding & to distance from colonial capital

Failed States (Fragile States) Loss of control of its territory, loss of authority to make decisions (sovereignty), inability to provide for its citizens, inability to interact with other states Potential examples based on 2014 research data by Fund for Peace: South Sudan Somalia Central African Republic Sudan Democratic Republic of the Congo Chad Yemen Syria Afghanistan Guinea Government in Exile Where the individual or group who claims to be the legitimate ruler of a certain country is living in another country May include deposed ruling families of Iran & Laos, former Taliban leadership of Afghanistan, former parliament of Belarus, Taiwan

Types of Government Based on who has decision-making power
Authoritarian Autocracy (rule by one) – absolute monarchy & dictatorship; little to no citizen participation or liberties Totalitarianism – total control by gov’t Despotism – abusive power by Democracy – rule by the people; can be direct or representative; emphasize civil liberties Anocracy – elements of democracy mixed with autocracy; elections but really only one choice; a pseudo-democracy Constitutional monarchy – monarch with limited role; many decisions from a representative body (congress, parliament, etc.) Oligarchy – rule by a few/a group; aristocracy (nobles), military junta, stratocracy (military), timocracy (landowners), plutocracy (wealthy) Republic – representatives make decision for the people; a representative democracy; sometimes representatives are not elected but appointed Theocracy – rule by religious leaders or religious laws Growth in number of democracies since 1980s; decline in autocracies

Key Issue #2: Why Do Boundaries Cause Problems?
Boundary – invisible line marking extent of territory; gives distinctive shape to states/territories; often sites of conflict 5 Basic Shapes of States Shape can be centripetal or centrifugal force (unique identity, ease or difficulty in internal administration) Compact States (efficient) Capital/center relatively equidistant from boundaries Good communication, particularly smaller compact states Examples in southern Africa – Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda Other examples: Belgium, Poland, Ecuador Compact does not always mean peaceful Prorupted/Protruded States (for access or disruption) Compact state with a large projecting extension (arm) Can provide access to resource (river, coast, etc.) Example: Belgian Congo (Zaire/DRC) – 300 mile proruption to Atlantic for sea access, divided Portuguese colony of Angola & created a small fragment (exclave) of Cabinda (30 miles from rest of Angola) Other examples: Thailand, Myanmar (Burma)

5 Basic Shapes of States Prorupted/Protruded States (for access or disruption) Can also disrupt access or separate states Example: British Afghanistan created proruption to avoid border between British India (Pakistan) and Russia/USSR (now Tajikistan) Examples of prorupted states in southern Africa: German Southwest Africa (now Namibia) – Caprivi Strip allows access to Zambezi R. & disrupted access between British colonies (Namibia controlled by South Africa ) Elongated States (potential isolation) Long, narrow shape May suffer from poor internal communication; potential isolation from capital city Chile – 2,500 miles north to south, but less than 90 miles wide (east to west); between Andes & Pacific Italy, Vietnam, Malawi (in southern Africa) Gambia – in West Africa; 15 miles wide & 300 miles long along Gambia River; former British colony; surrounded by former French colony of Senegal

5 Basic Shapes of States Fragmented States (problematic) Several discontinuous (unconnected) pieces of territory (separated by other states or water); Examples – Denmark, Philippines, U.K. Indonesia – separated by water 13,677 islands; 3,000 miles long 80% of pop. On 2 islands (Java & Sumatra) Fragmentation hinders communication & unity Encouraged migration to other islands to foster unity Conflict in Aceh (on Sumatra) & Ambon (near island of Sulawesi/Celebes) Conflict in Timor – East Timor (Timor-Leste) gained independence from Portugal in 1975; Indonesia invaded (controlled western portion of island of Timor) 1999 – UN ruled on Timorese vote for independence; East Timor became independent in 2002 West Papua (Irian Jaya) – western portion of island of New Guinea (eastern occupied by country of Papua New Guinea) – claimed independence after East Timor (not recognized)

5 Basic Shapes of States Fragmented States (problematic) Separated by land – if neighbor is not friendly, communication & trade can be very difficult Exclave – an area separated from the rest of a country by the territory of another country Kaliningrad (Russia) – separated by Belarus & Lithuania East Pakistan (Bangladesh) – separated by India Alaska (U.S.) – separated by Canada West Berlin – separated by East Germany Cabinda (Angola) – separated by DRC Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan) – separated by Armenia Madha & Musandam (Oman) – separated by UAE Tin Bigha corridor (India) – connects exclave of India & separates exclaves of Bangladesh Panama canal zone (U.S.) (joint control) & 1999 (totally Panama) Brunei – divided into 2 sections by Malaysian territory on island of Borneo Palestine – Gaza Strip & West Bank (divided by Israel)

5 Basic Shapes of States Perforated States Completely surrounds another state Enclave – territory of a country or ethnic group surrounded by another South Africa – completely surrounds Lesotho; Lesotho depends heavily on South Africa for imports & exports; difficult during apartheid Italy – perforated by Vatican City in Rome & San Marino Landlocked States Completely surrounded by land, no direct access to sea/ocean for trade 14 of 54 African countries are landlocked – legacy of colonialism (British & French built RR’s to connect to coast); new boundaries/states forces cooperation Examples in Europe: Hungary, Czech Rep., Luxembourg, Serbia, etc. Examples in S. America: Paraguay & Bolivia (lost access after war with Chile) Examples in Asia: Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, Nepal, etc. Examples in Africa: Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Chad, Zimbabwe, etc. Zimbabwe (South Rhodesia in 1965 – white minority rule; difficult trade; black ruled Botswana denied access to S. African ports (Durban); 1979 – blacks allowed to vote; traded through Mozambique’s ports

Types of Boundaries Frontiers separated countries – zone where no state exercises control; tangible area, not invisible line; limited settlement & access Modern communication & transportation allow more control & surveillance over borders/frontiers Frontiers still exist in Antarctica & Arabian Peninsula (desert, nomadic activity) – neutral zone between Saudi Arabia & Iraq until 1990; unclear boundaries b/t Saudi Arabia & Oman & UAE Redrawing of boundaries In Europe after WWI – primarily based on languages to form nation-states Nunavut created as new Canadian province in 1999 to give greater autonomy to native Inuit people In South Asia 1947 – primarily drawn based on religion

Types of Boundaries Physical boundaries Mountain Difficult to cross, limited contact on either side, winter storms close mountain passes, sparsely inhabited No always exact or agreed upon – Example: Chile & Argentina divided at crest of Andes (where is the crest?); almost started a war (U.S. intervened in negotiations) Desert Hard to cross, sparsely inhabited, limited contact on either side Sahara – mostly stable boundaries Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Morocco in north Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Sudan in south Libya attempted invasion of Chad in 1980s to claim oil-rich area near border (French intervention in 1987)

Types of Boundaries Physical boundaries (most common is water) Water (rivers, lakes, oceans) Water boundary provides protection, defense against landings by enemies Problematic – water courses change over time, especially rivers (example: Rio Grande/Rio Bravo) Ocean boundaries – coast or at sea?; sea is important for trade, defense, and fishing Late 1700s – territorial limit was 3 nautical miles (3.5 land miles) UN Convention on the Law of the Sea/UNCLOS (1983) Territorial limit of 12 nautical miles (14 land miles) Contiguous zone of 12 nautical miles – extend immigration, customs, etc. oversight Exclusive economic zone (mineral & fishing rights) within 200 miles – other countries’ ships can pass through Countries separated by less than 400 miles must negotiate boundary (usually midpoint) Continental shelf Conflicts – South China Sea, Arctic Ocean

Types of Boundaries Cultural Boundaries (language, religion, ethnic) Religious Boundaries British India – Muslim E & W Pakistan & Hindu India Eire (Ireland) – Protestant Northern Ireland, Catholic Rep. of Ireland Partition of Palestine – Jewish & Muslim Arabs Language Boundaries Particularly in Europe – large literary tradition, formal grammar & spelling rules England, Spain, France, Italy, Germany, Portugal After WWI – redrawing of boundaries based on language Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania Yugoslavia (combined similar Slavic languages) Czechoslovakia (combined similar West Slavic languages) Some redrawing after WWII Stable until 1990 with end of communism

Types of Boundaries Cultural Boundaries (language, religion, ethnic) Ethnic Cyprus’s “Green Line” 3rd largest island in Mediterranean Greek (78%) in south (2/3), Turkish (18%) in north (1/3) Independence from Britain in 1960 – constitutional guarantee of Turkish presence in gov’t 1974 – Greek Cypriots tried to reunite with Greece; Turkey invaded to protect Turks Many had to move from one side to the other 1983 – Turkey recognized Northern Cyprus as a state UN buffer zone – runs through capital of Nicosia (only one crossing point); UN plan to grant autonomy to each side but remain one country 2003 – border opened; 2004 – admitted to European Union Israel’s “Green Line” Division of Israel from occupied West Bank, Golan Heights, Gaza

Types of Boundaries Geometric Boundaries Typically straight lines (such as latitude or longitude) Examples: U.S. & Canada (part geometric & part water/Great Lakes) 49°N parallel – 1,300 miles long; 1846 treaty; U.S. wanted 54°40’ N; stretches from WA to Lake of the Woods, MN 700 mile border along 141°W longitude (AK & Yukon) 600-mile border between Chad (French colony) & Libya (Italian colony) Aozou Strip – 60 miles south of current border; agreed by France, never ratified by Italy At independence – boundary set at original location 1973 – Libya “annexed” Aozou & part of NE Niger 1987 – France helped Chad win Aozou back

Types of Boundaries Subsequent boundaries – drawn after a population is established; based upon cultural patterns (religion, language, ethnicity, etc.) Antecedent boundaries – drawn in a region prior to being populated (U.S.-Canada border in west in 1846) Superimposed boundaries – drawn after a population is established but does NOT respect cultural patterns (colonial Africa) Relic boundaries – border that is no longer in use but has left a physical or cultural mark on the landscape (Berlin Wall) Rump state – remnant territory of a once larger government or empire

Boundaries Inside States Local boundaries (province, county, etc.) often drawn for the same reasons; can also be drawn for political reasons (political parties) Unitary vs. Federal States Decentralization – transfer of authority from national to local governments Unitary states – most power in central/national gov’t Federal – strong power to local governments Unitary theoretically builds stronger unity & minimizes internal struggles (common in Europe & smaller states); effective for internal communication Many multi-national states adopt unitary frameworks – impose 1 culture on the others (Ghana, Rwanda, Kenya); promote Communist values (communist Eastern Europe) Multi-national states may adopt federal system to empower local groups & diversity to promote unity (best for large states like U.S., Russia, Canada, Brazil, India, Australia, Mexico, Germany) U.S. Federal system – capital at D.C.; 50 U.S. states, counties, cities Size does not always determine which system is used (Belgium is small and federal due to Flemings & Walloons; China is large and unitary due to Communism); Switzerland is federal (26 cantons)

Boundaries Inside States Trend Toward Federal Government France (curbing a unitary government) Nation state with long tradition of unitary central gov’t 96 local departments with an administrator appointed by central gov’t (all engineers, planners, etc. work for central gov’t) 36,568 communes with locally elected mayor & council France has recently added more borrowing & taxing power to departments & communes Poland (new federal government) Communism for 40+ years – unitary with no local authority; contributed to poor infrastructure (roads, utilities, etc.) & deterioration of buildings/facilities 1989 constitution – changed to federal system with 2,383 municipalities each with elected officials Businesses usually turned over to local gov’t or private business/church but some maintained by national gov’t Difficult transition – many unqualified workers hired; qualified workers often rejected because of ties to former Communist government

Boundaries Inside States Electoral Geography Districts redrawn periodically for population changes U.S. states redraw every 10 years after each census – 435 total Congressional districts (redistricting) Reapportionment – re-allocation of congressional seats to states based on population changes European countries redraw using independent commissions U.S. – often redrawing is done by party in power and for its benefit (gerrymandering – named for Elbridge Gerry of MA who drew salamander-like districts to benefit his party) Types of gerrymandering Wasted Vote – spread opposition party voters across many districts to be a minority in each Excess Vote – concentrate opposition voters in a few districts Stacked Vote – odd shape districts to unify similar voters from long distances apart

Boundaries Inside States Electoral Geography Stacked Vote Gerrymandering Primary type in U.S. recently Can elect ethnic minorities African Americans, non-Cuban Hispanics usually vote Democrat Republicans support because it makes it easier to win in other parts of the state Ruled illegal in 1985 (based on race) but Supreme Court did not require districts to be broken up 2001 ruling allowed NC to have new odd-shaped districts (ensured election of African American Democrat) Only 1/10 of Congressional seats are considered competitive (unlikely to switch between parties except in special circumstances)

Key Issue #3: Why Do States Cooperate with Each Other?
Supranationalism – movement of countries to organize for political, economic, military, and/or cultural cooperation to promote shared objectives Devolution – process where regions within a state demand and gain political strength and growing autonomy at the expense of the central government Political & Military Cooperation United Nations (UN) Created by Allies after WWII in 1945 1st attempt after WWI – League of Nations (dissolved in 1930s); U.S. never joined even though it was proposed by President Woodrow Wilson 49 states in 1945, now 193 states (includes every internationally recognized state except Vatican City) Maintains strict neutrality; may send peacekeeping forces by requesting forces from members (not authorized to attack) Emphasizes diplomacy Security Council (can veto forces) – rotating members plus permanent members of China, Russia/USSR, France, U.K., & U.S.

Political & Military Cooperation Regional Military Alliances Began because of the 2 superpowers after WWII during Cold War (U.S. & USSR) Balance of power – equal strength between opposing alliances (no single state dominates); usually there were more than 2 superpowers Alliances expanded to shift or restore balance of power U.S. & USSR – allies were a symbol of power for each; wanted to avoid upsetting allies but willing to send troops to maintain allies; established military bases in other countries NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) – began by 14 democratic countries of Western Europe, U.S., and Canada (HQ in Brussels, Belgium); France & Spain are members but do not send troops Warsaw Pact – began by 7 communist Eastern European countries in 1955 to protect against NATO NATO troops greatly reduced after fall of Communism; Warsaw Pact was disbanded Many former Warsaw Pact countries have joined NATO Organization on Security & Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) – 55 members; most of Europe, U.S., Canada, Russia; does not directly command troops

Political & Military Cooperation Other regional organizations Organization of American States (OAS) – 35 states in Western Hemisphere (all except Cuba); promotes social, political, & economic links African Union (AU) – 53 countries in Africa (2001); economic integration; replaced Organization of African Unity British Commonwealth of Nations – UK & 53 former British colonies (including Australia, Canada, India, Pakistan, Nigeria, Bangladesh, etc.); economic & cultural cooperation Economic Cooperation More than 2 superpowers again since fall of USSR (1991) Key differences pre- to post-Cold War: Most important superpower factors are economic not military (Japan, Germany) Supranational superpower – European Union (EU) is biggest superpower but not a single state

Economic Cooperation EU Formerly European Economic Community (EEC), Common Market, & European Community (EC) Established in 1958 by Belgium, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Italy, West Germany (to heal wounds of WWII) Germany not a nation state until 1871 when Frederick the Great of Prussia and Otto von Bismark (chancellor) consolidated many German-speaking areas into one country Lost territory after WWI (to France & Poland; gained East Prussia/Konigsberg/Kaliningrad) but reclaimed land in 1930s with Nazis Territory redrawn after WWII – democratic West Germany (U.S., UK, France) & communist East Germany (USSR); Berlin also carved into 4 zones (3 west & 1 east); Berlin was completely surrounded by East Germany; Berlin Wall; 2 Germanies from EU added members in 1973, 1981, 1986, 1995 (Denmark, Ireland, UK, Greece, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Finland, Sweden) 2004 – former communist countries added (Czech Rep., Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Romania (also Cyprus joined) 2013 – Croatia joined to bring total membership to 28 Possible future members: Iceland, Macedonia, Montenegro, Turkey, Serbia

Economic Cooperation EU Europe is world’s wealthiest market Over 500 million in population (7.3% of world) $18 trillion GDP (20% of world) Main goal – increase development among members through economic cooperation Farm subsidies – money paid to supplement farmers’ incomes Increase free trade – remove barriers such as tariffs, border crossing issues, passport requirements and open new bank branches and introduce a common currency (euro); encourage economic development in poorer regions of Europe EU has some shared political & legal cooperation as well Euro used as sole currency in 18 of 28 EU countries as well as non-EU countries such as Kosovo, Montenegro, and several European microstates European Parliament – elected by member states for representation EU headquarters located in Brussels, Belgium Brexit – U.K. voted to leave the EU to regain country’s sovereignty over economic agreements, border control, migration/refugee policies, efforts to tackle terror threats, and to stop seeing its money used to support weaker economies in Europe (like Greece, etc.)

Other Supranational Organizations NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) – U.S. Canada, Mexico (economic, remove barriers to trade) OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) – control oil pricing and supply Caricom (Caribbean Community) - economic & political ACS (Association of Caribbean States) – trade, tourism, transportation, disaster aid Mercosur (Southern Common Market) & Andean Community of Nations (CAN) have been combined as UNASUR (Union of South American Nations) – economic & political Arab League – 22 Arab countries (economic, political, & cultural cooperation) Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) – loose collection of former Soviet states joined for economic and security purposes (also called the Russian Commonwealth) Organization for Islamic Cooperation (OIC) – 57 members; “the collective voice of the Muslim world” Council of Europe (CoE) – 47 members; promotes human rights & unity

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) Organization that are NOT associated with any state/government; non-profit; charitable International examples: Red Cross, Doctors Without Borders, CARE, Rockefeller Foundation, etc.

Key Issue #4: Why Has Terrorism Increased?
Terrorism – systematic use of violence by a group to intimidate a population or coerce a government into granting its demands 1st use – French Revolution, Maximillien Robespierre’s Reign of Terror Terrorism by Individuals & Organizations Terrorism vs. Assassination 4 U.S. Presidents assassinated for political reasons (Lincoln, Garfield, McKinley, Kennedy) Julius Caesar Archduke Franz Ferdinand Terrorism differs from political violence & assassination because terrorist attacks are aimed at ordinary citizens In war, civilians are often killed but usually not targeted Terrorism vs. Wartime Retaliation or Terrorism vs. Freedom Fighting PLO suicide bombers vs. Israelis Russians vs. Chechens; ETA (Basques) vs. Spain British vs. IRA in Northern Ireland

Terrorism by Individuals & Organizations American Terrorism 178 Americans killed in PanAm Flight 103 in 1988 over Lockerbie, Scotland (Frankfurt to London to NYC to Detroit flight); total of 270 dead Car bomb at World Trade Center (WTC) in NYC 1993 parking garage – 6 killed, 1000 injured 1995 – OKC Federal Building car bomb (168 killed) 1996 – truck bomb in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia; 19 U.S. soldiers killed 1998 – U.S. Embassies in Nairobi, Kenya & Dar es Salaam, Tanzania bombed on same day (190 killed, 5000 injured) 2000 – USS Cole attacked at Aden, Yemen; 17 soldiers killed 2013 – Boston Marathon bombing, Chechen immigrants, 3 killed 2014 & 2015 – attacks on Fort Hood, TX and locations in Chattanooga, 9 soldiers killed 2015 – San Bernardino mass shooting, linked to ISIS, 14 killed 9/11/2001 WTC & Pentagon American citizens responsible for terrorism Ted Kaczynski (Unabomber) – mail bombs (3 dead, 23 injured, 17 yrs) Timothy McVeigh & Terry Nichols – OKC Federal Building; claim of retaliation against FBI siege of Branch Davidian cult compound in Waco, TX in 1993 leaving 80 dead (David Koresh)

Terrorism by Individuals & Organizations September 11, 2001 Attacks Twin towers, 110 stories, among tallest in U.S. – economic power Pentagon just outside Washington DC – military power 3rd target – likely Capitol or White House – political power Nearly 3,000 killed 95 on American Airlines flight 11 (WTC 1 – north tower) 64 on United Airline flight 175 (WTC 2 – south tower) 2,605 at WTC 64 on American Airlines flight 17 – Pentagon 125 at Pentagon 44 on United Airlines flight 93 – passengers forced crash near Shanksville, PA; did not hit target

Terrorism by Individuals & Organizations Al-Qaeda Founded by Osama bin Laden (one of 50 children of Mohammed bin Laden from Yemen who became a billionaire in construction in Saudi Arabia) Osama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan in 1980s to support fight against USSR (called the fight a “jihad” or holy war) – militant Muslims from other countries joined; U.S. supported rebels against USSR (Cold War) Returned to Saudi Arabia; expelled in 1991 for opposing U.S. bases there during Persian Gulf War against Iraq (invaded Kuwait for oil) Moved to Sudan – instigated attacks against U.S. troops in Yemen & Somalia; expelled in 1994; moved to Afghanistan as guest of Taliban gov’t Declared war against U.S. in 1996; called it a “fatwa” or religious decree in 1998 to compel other Muslims to join jihad against U.S. citizens due to U.S. support for Saud royal family and Jews in Israel Al-Qaeda formed in Afghanistan in 1990; means “the foundation” Estimates up to 20,000 members worldwide in 34 countries

Terrorism by Individuals & Organizations Al-Qaeda Not a single, unified organization – composed of isolated, autonomous cells with limited or no contact with others Have local franchises and imitators Some groups responsible for planning, data collection, monetary/weapon support, training, or attacks Attacks since 9/11 Riyadh, Saudi Arabia – car bomb 2003; 35 dead Khoban, Saudi Arabia – oil company office in 2004; 22 dead Istanbul – truck bombs at Jewish synagogues in 2002; 29 dead Istanbul – bomb at British embassy & HSBC bank in 2003; 32 dead London – subway/bus bombs in 2005; 56 dead Sharm-el-sheikh, Egypt (resort town on Red Sea) – 2005; 88 dead Amman, Jordan – 3 American hotels bombed in 2005; 60 dead Osama bin Laden killed in 2011 in Abottabad, Pakistan Ayman al-Zawahiri now leader

Terrorism by Individuals & Organizations Al-Qaeda Use of religion (Sunni Islam) to justify actions is troubling – many Muslims disagree with Western policies but also with terrorism U.S. & Europe must distinguish between terrorist & non-terrorist Muslims (and other groups) Questions if responsible – 192 killed on bombs on commuter trains in Madrid in 2004 (ETA or Al-Qaeda?) Jemaah Islamiyah – Al-Qaeda franchise in Indonesia 2002 – Bali bombing; 202 dead 2003 – Jakarta car bombs; 12 dead 2004 – 11 killed at Australian embassy 2005 – Bali bombing; 23 dead Other terrorist groups linked to Al-Qaeda: al-Shabaab in Somalia (some members now linked with ISIS), Jundallah in Pakistan, Abu Sayyaf in Philippines & Malaysia, Mujahideen in Chechnya, Jabhat Fateh al-Sham (al-Nusra Front) in Syria, Khorasan in Syria, East Turkestan Islamic Movement in western China (Uyghurs), Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan Al-Qaeda (Ansar al-Sharia) involved in Yemen civil war; control portions of desert interior and coast along Gulf of Aden; fighting Yemen military forces and Shia-Muslim Houthis rebels

Terrorism by Individuals & Organizations Other terrorist groups not affiliated with Al-Qaeda Boko Haram – Sunni group in Nigeria (formerly al-Qaeda, now allied with ISIS); now calling itself Islamic State’s West African Province Hezbollah – Shia group in Lebanon Hamas – militant Palestinian group Islamic State of Iraq & Greater Syria (or & the Levant) – ISIS or ISIL Most active in Syria & Iraq; other groups affiliated in various Muslim countries Taliban – linked with al-Qaeda in Afghanistan & Pakistan Jaish-e-Mohammad in Kashmir (Pakistan & India) Lashkar-e-Taiba in Kashmir Kurdistan People’s Party & Defense Force (PKK) – Kurdish group in Turkey Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam – defunct/inactive Tamil group in Sri Lanka Shining Path – Communist group in Peru ETA – Basque group in Spain (not active) IRA – pro-Irish group in Northern Ireland (not active) UDF – pro-British group in Northern Ireland (not active) Ansar al-Sharia in Tunisia & Libya (linked with ISIS); different from group in Yemen with same name

State Support for Terrorism May give sanctuary for wanted terrorists May supply weapons, money, & intelligence May help plan attacks using terrorists Many Middle East countries have supported terrorism in recent years Libya Ruled by Muammar Qaddafi ; socialist dictator 1981 – U.S. attacked Libyan aircraft over international waters 1986 – sponsored bombing of Berlin night club popular with U.S. troops; U.S. responded by bombing Tripoli & Benghazi 1988 – Libyan terrorists responsible for PanAm flight 103 1989 – responsible for UTA flight 772 over Niger; 170 dead 8 years of UN economic sanctions; Qaddafi turned over terrorist agents 2003 – Qaddafi renounced terrorism and provided compensation for victims of flight 103

State Support for Terrorism Afghanistan Taliban sheltered bin Laden & Al-Qaeda; attacked by U.S. after 9/11/2001 Taliban gained power in 1995; grew out of mujahideen (holy warriors) in Afghanistan civil war in 1973 & war against USSR U.S. supported Afghan rebels against USSR Taliban removed from power in 2001, but reorganizing to try to regain power once U.S. withdraws troops Iraq 1979 – Saddam Hussein gains power; goes to war against Iran ; Iraq supported by U.S. against Iran 1981 – Israel destroyed a nuclear facility in Iraq 1988 – used poison gas against Iraqi Kurds; killed 5000 1990 – invaded Kuwait for oil; Persian Gulf War/First Gulf War/Operation Desert Storm by U.S. and allies against Iraq

State Support for Terrorism Iraq 1980s – UN inspectors found evidence of nuclear, chemical, & biological weapon production (weapons of mass destruction or WMDs); determined to have been destroyed in 1991 during Desert Storm Hussein – Ba’ath Party; proposes pan-Arabism, not devout Muslims, ideologically different from Al-Qaeda 2003 – U.S. invaded to depose Hussein; believed he had developed more WMDs but hid them; also believed links to Al-Qaeda; weapons not found U.S. tried to install a democratic government; not well-received by many Iraqis; many aspiring terrorists went to Iraq to “train” against U.S. military Struggle between tribes & religious groups (Kurds, Sunnis, Shia, etc.) UK and other allies supported; many other countries viewed invasion as a wrong; sovereignty?; not backed by UN Kurds in north supported U.S. – gained more autonomy in democratic gov’t Sunni in center (Sunni Triangle) – opposed U.S.; feared loss of power Shia in south and east – opposed U.S. because they shared a dislike of U.S. with Shias of Iran

State Support for Terrorism Iran 1979 – pro-U.S. Shah Pahlavi forced out by revolution; the Shah was a king; ruled as a dictator Shia-dominated Iran opposed the Shah’s modernization or Westernization of economy & culture; also wanted a democratic government Ayatollah Khomeini took over as Supreme Leader and installed an Islamic fundamentalist government with a democratically elected President – U.S. embassy seized & 62 Americans taken hostage – war with Iraq over control of Shatt al-Arab waterway (where Tigris & Euphrates join before emptying into Persian Gulf); stalemate, UN peace plan U.S. accused Iran of harboring Al-Qaeda & trying to gain influence in Iraq’s new government (slight Shia majority in Iraq) Iran also involved in nuclear production – nuclear power & weapons programs (facing economic sanctions to suspend nuclear weapons program)

Unit 4: Political Organization of Space

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Unit 4: Political Organization of Space

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