1. Drinking Water Quality Perceptions, problems and the future
Professor Nick Gray
Centre for the Environment
Trinity College
University of Dublin
© Tigroney Press

2. Drinking Water Quality Perceptions, problems and the future
Questions that we should be exploring:
What are the customer’s expectations of the water supply industry?
How are problems identified?
What are the management options available for water supply?

3. Perception of water quality
Drinking Water Quality
Perception of water quality
Exposure to contaminants more related to what we eat and drink rather than drinking water per se.
Upsurge of interest in drinking water – reflected in record sales of bottled water, use of water coolers and point of use treatment systems.
 While bottle water has become fashionable the public’s perception of tap water remains negative.
In reality tap water in the majority of developed countries is of a higher quality than ever before, and certainly equal to bottled water.

4. Wholesomeness (UK) Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2000
Drinking Water Quality
Wholesomeness (UK)
Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2000
Water safe to drink and aesthetically acceptable to consumers in terms of taste, colour and clarity.
Consumers tend to assess quality subjectively using these parameters
Public’s perception is based on chemo-leptic characteristics rather than its quality to prescribed standards or actual risk.
Take some time to look at this important and useful document

5. Consumer complaints traditionally fallen into a number of categories
Drinking Water Quality
Consumer complaints traditionally fallen into a number of categories
Presence of worms or insects
Scale deposits in pipe work and appliances
Alleged illness
Noise
Corrosion
Low pressure
Discoloured water
Particulate matter (rust, grit, sediment)
Staining of laundry
Staining of bathroom fittings
Cloudy, milky or chalky water
Tastes and odours

6. Nature of complaints are changing
Drinking Water Quality
Nature of complaints are changing
Water utilities are now getting more specific complaints
Effects of specific contaminants on their children or unborn child while pregnant.
Complaints are often linked to media attention
Internet - consumers better informed, able to buy test kits, also examine own water quality data published by utilities themselves.
Complaints are becoming more technical and often more challenging for suppliers.

7. Ireland - complaints have not generally been well managed.
Drinking Water Quality
Complaints often the only way utilities will know that a problem has developed so that it can be rectified.
UK utilities carry a legal liability to fulfill their obligations to consumers, so if consumers are unhappy they want to know about it.
Not the case in Ireland where liability in relation to water is untested.
Ireland - complaints have not generally been well managed.

8. Consumers in Ireland are also customers
Drinking Water Quality
Complaints should be used to:
Identify weaknesses and improve operational management
Ensure best water quality for consumers
Protect customers
Satisfy the expectations of consumers
Create mutual respect and trust
Consumers in Ireland are also customers
This is going to be major shift for the water industry and for Irish Water

9. Water supplies in Ireland
Drinking Water Quality
Water supplies in Ireland
Water supplies:
83.7% surface, 8.8% groundwater, 7.5% springs
Up to 2014 regulated by 34 Water Service Authorities (WSA) – Now Irish Water
240,000 tests done in 2007
952 Public supplies serving 87.5 % population
830 Public group water schemes plus
588 Private group water schemes together serving 8.2% population
888 small private schemes serving 0.4 % population
? Private wells serving 3.9 % population
Responsibility of quality lies with manager/operator of supply?

10. Drinking Water Quality
Water Regulation
Since 2007 the EPA is the supervisory authority of the 34 WSAs now to Irish Water
Key roles:
Collate data supplied by Irish Water
Carry out audits of supplies and treatment plants
Irish Water must inform EPA of non-compliance or risk to public health
Direct Irish Water to carry out remedial action
A fuller explanation of what the EPA does is given:

11. OFWAT (Water Services Regulation Authority)
Drinking Water Quality
OFWAT (Water Services Regulation Authority)
surveys on consumer attitudes - every 3 years
Dissatisfied consumers fall into 2 categories:
Physical properties (aesthetic)
Concerns about the composition or its provenance
In UK 39% of consumers take positive action
14% boil water before drinking
21% purchase bottled water
11% use home treatment systems
Bottled water sales: 74% taste, 37% safety

12. Problems: Problems fall into three areas:
Drinking Water Quality
Problems:
Problems fall into three areas:
Traditional problems: Normally effectively dealt with by water treatment
Infectious diseases associated with waterborne pathogens
Basic aesthetic quality (e.g. colour/transparency, taste/odour, discolouration,/staining, excessive hardness).

13. Excessive levels of aluminum in water
Drinking Water Quality
2. Accidental problems: Arise from poor operational practice or accidents.
Excessive levels of aluminum in water
Breakthrough of protozoan oocysts
Spillages of contaminants into water resources that are not detected early enough

14. Compounds found in water due to better analytical technology
Drinking Water Quality
3. Emerging problems such as newly detected compounds or pathogens in water.
Pathogens that have not been identified previously as infectious via water
Compounds found in water due to better analytical technology
Increased use in catchment
Better toxicological evidence

15. Immediate problems (Ireland): Microbial quality in group schemes (IRL)
Drinking Water Quality
Immediate problems (Ireland):
Microbial quality in group schemes (IRL)
Fluoride (IRL)
Operational management (IRL)
Achieving 2013 lead target 10 ug/L
Poor operational training and management of services
Interim problems for (Ireland):
Endocrine disrupting compounds
Trace organic especially pharmaceuticals
Cryptosporidium hominis (human strain) autumn outbreaks.

16. Emerging problems (Ireland):
Drinking Water Quality
Emerging problems (Ireland):
Increased risk from deliberate contamination that may be associated with terrorism
Problem of sustaining water supplies into the future without causing significant ecological damage
Increased vulnerability of community due to increased numbers being immuno-compromised.
Antibiotic resistance in pathogens

17. Future Needs: Improved management Better regulation
Drinking Water Quality
Future
Needs:
Improved management
Better regulation
Working with consumer
Mechanisms:
Centralization of management and training
Water safety and security plans
Water demand management

18. Water Safety Plans Concept developed by WHO in 1990’s
Drinking Water Quality
Water Safety Plans
Concept developed by WHO in 1990’s
Ensures supply is safe for consumption
Based on comprehensive risk assessment and risk management approach to every step in water supply chain.
Objectives:
Reduction /removal of contamination through appropriate treatment
Prevention of contamination in distribution network and domestic system
Applicable to all water supply chains irrespective of size or complexity
Check out WHO Manual on Water Safety Plans
In 2014 the EPA adopted this approach (DWSPs) and requires Irish Water to implement it.

19. Main sources of drinking water contamination
Drinking Water Quality
Main sources of drinking water contamination
Resource
Natural geology; Land use; Pollution
Treatment
Unit process efficiency; Chemicals added to clarify water or for consumer protection
Distribution
Pipe work material and linings; Organisms; Contamination
Home plumbing
Pipe work or tank material; Contamination; Poor installation/repair

20. Vulnerability within water supply chain
Drinking Water Quality
Vulnerability within water supply chain

21. What are the critical health issues related to drinking water?
Drinking Water Quality
What are the critical health issues related to drinking water?
Infectious diseases
Cancer
Endocrine disrupting compounds and fertility
Metals sensitivity or toxicity
Organic compounds nerve damage, toxicity
Pathogens rapid response to consumers (24-48h)
Chemical pathogens more likely to have medium (1-5 yr) to long-term (>10 yr) toxic effects including cancer.
While aesthetic problems also important, risk to health must take priority.

22. Drinking Water Quality
Water security plans
Water resources management to ensure adequate supplies on a medium and long-term basis. (water stressed countries)
Australia has launched $10 bn National Water Security Plan to tackle drought.
(b) Also prevention of deliberate interference with water supply chain. (economically-rich countries)

23. Water Demand Management
Drinking Water Quality
Water Demand Management
Shortfall between supply and demand worldwide problem exacerbated in many areas by climate change and population movement.
Acceptance that supply has peaked and continuing water infrastructural expansion (supply-side management) can not address the problem of dwindling supplies and escalating water demand
WDM has identified the need to move away from expensive, unrestrained and ecologically damaging infrastructural development associated with continually increasing water production

24. Specific actions include: Integrated use of conservation measures
Drinking Water Quality
Water demand management (demand-side management) uses a range of tools to address problems of shortfall.
Specific actions include:
Integrated use of conservation measures
Development of new management techniques and structures
Use of decentralized technologies
Change in user attitudes and behaviour.
Replaces traditional engineered solutions with more sustainable approach where existing resources are used more effectively so no need to exploit new surface and groundwater resources.

25. Efficient water using appliances and fixtures
Drinking Water Quality
Key actions:
Leak reduction
Efficient water using appliances and fixtures
Conservation orientated pricing
Rainwater harvesting
Water reuse
Water sensitive design
Education water ethic

26. Drinking Water Quality
Last word
Like other food manufactures, the water utilities have a unique relationship with their customers who trust them to provide water that is completely safe to drink.
That trust will become increasingly important in the future when we tackle the problems of climate change and supply shortfall, problems that can not be solved using traditional engineering solutions or by the utilities on their own.

27. Drinking Water Quality
Conclusions
Need to develop a mutually respectful customer-supplier relationship
Consumers must see themselves as stakeholders that take a positive interest in water supply and be realistic about their expectations in relation to water quality and use.
Problems need to be identified and tackled well in advance
Adoption of new management systems .
Water supply and treatment must be managed on a regional basis to ensure uniformity of operation and scale.
Charging via metering nationwide is necessary both for conservation and the development of a financially sustainable water industry.
More use must be made of point of entry/use systems at group level.

28. Further reading: Section 1.4 and Chapter 19 in course text.
Drinking Water Quality
Further reading:
Section 1.4 and Chapter 19 in course text.
Chapter 2: Drinking water standards and risk in Gray, N.F. (2008) Drinking Water Quality: Problems and Solutions, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
European Drinking Water Regulations
WHO Manual on Water Safety Plans