1. Environmental Legislation Review
For the AP Exam
in alphabetical order…

2. U.S. Clean Air Act (CAA)
Chapter 18

3. The Clean Air Act
In 1970, Congress passed The Clean Air Act and created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to enforce it.
The Clean Air Act was most recently amended in 1990
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are established to regulate six major pollutants.
Primary standards – protects human health
Secondary standards – prevents environmental and property damage
The EPA also establishes standards for 188 other hazardous air pollutants (or HAPs)
Mostly chlorinated hydrocarbons, VOC’s, and toxic metals

4. The Clean Air Act
How do you remember the six outdoor criteria pollutants regulated by the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)?
NOSCLP – A nose clip will save you from air pollution
Nitrogen oxides
Ozone
Sulfur dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Lead
Particulate matter

5. The Clean Air Act
The CAA has reduced emissions of the six criteria pollutants by a total of 49% from
However, environmental scientists still point out several deficiencies in the Clean Air Act:
The U.S. still relies on cleanup rather than prevention
There is little or no regulation of air pollution from oceangoing ships in American ports
Airports are exempt from many air pollution regulations
The CAA does not regulate CO2 which is a major greenhouse gas
The CAA has failed to deal seriously with indoor air pollution - Ultrafine particles are not regulated

6. The Clean Air Act
To help reduce SO2 emissions, the 1990 amendment to the Clean Air Act authorized an emission trading or cap-and-trade program
Enables the 110 most polluting power plants to buy and sell SO2 pollution rights.
Since 1990, the emission trading system has greatly reduced emissions
Sulfur dioxide emission are down 53%
The program has cost less than 10% of original industry projections
The same system is being talked about to combat NO2 and CO2 emissions.

7. U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA)
Chapter 20

8. U.S. Clean Water Act
The U.S. Clean Water Act sets standards for allowed levels of key water pollutants and requires polluters to get permits limiting how much they can discharge into aquatic systems.
EPA is experimenting with a discharge trading policy similar to that for air pollution control.
Early focus of the CWA was on point sources, but with the 1987 amendment, efforts to control nonpoint sources have increased.
The act does not deal directly with groundwater.
But remember, the U.S. Safe Drinking Water Act does…

9. U.S. Clean Water Act Important CWA vocabulary:
Water quality standards (WQS) are risk-based requirements which set site-specific allowable pollutant levels for individual water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, streams and wetlands.
States set WQS by designating uses for the water body (e.g., recreation, water supply, aquatic life, agriculture)
Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL), is a calculation of the maximum amount of a pollutant that a water body can receive and still meet WQS.

10. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
Chapter 21

11. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
Commonly known as Superfund
The Superfund law was designed to have polluters pay for cleaning up abandoned hazardous waste sites.
Also created a tax on chemical and petroleum industries
The revenue from the tax went into a fund to help pay for the clean up of hazardous waste sites when no responsible party is identified.

12. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
This act also establishes a National Priorities List (NPL) of the worst sites in the country.
These are otherwise known as Superfund Sites
These sites are scheduled for clean up using the most cost-effective methods.
Only 70% of the cleanup costs have come from the polluters, the rest comes from the “superfund” financed until 1995 by taxes on chemical raw materials and oil.
Congress refused to renew the tax in 1996, so now the superfund is broke and taxpayers foot the bill when guilty parties cannot be found

13. Case Study: Love Canal
In 1957, Hooker Chemical warned the school not to disturb the site because of the toxic waste.
In 1959 an elementary school, playing fields and homes were built disrupting the clay cap covering the wastes.
In 1976, residents complained of chemical smells and chemical burns from the site.
There were also increased cases of cancers and birth defects reported by residents of the area.

14. Case Study: Love Canal
President Jimmy Carter declared Love Canal a federal disaster area.
The area was abandoned in 1980
It still is a controversy as to how much the chemicals at Love Canal injured or caused disease to the residents.
Love Canal sparked creation of the Superfund law, which forced polluters to pay for cleaning up abandoned toxic waste dumps.

15. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
Chapter 9

16. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
International treaties have helped reduce the trade of endangered and threatened species.
The 1975 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
Lists 900 species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products
Signed by 172 countries
Enforcement is difficult
Probably only 10% of illegal trade in the U.S. is caught

17. Endangered Species Act (ESA)
Chapter 9

18. The U.S. Endangered Species Act
One of the world’s most far-reaching and controversial environmental laws:
The 1973 U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA)
Overall goal is to identify and protect endangered species in the U.S. and abroad.
ESA makes it illegal for Americans to engage in commerce associated with, or hunt / kill / collect, endangered or threatened species.
ESA forbids federal agencies (besides defense department) to carry out or even fund projects that would jeopardize an endangered species.

19. The U.S. Endangered Species Act
Accomplishments:
More than half of the species listed are stable or improving
99% of all listed species are still living
Challenges:
Very small budget
Species are listed when faced with serious threat of extinction
It can take decades to bring a species’ populations up
Suggested changes to ESA:
Increase the budget
Develop recovery plans more quickly
Establish a core of the endangered organism’s survival habitat

20. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)
Chapter 12

21. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulate the sale and use of pesticides under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA).
The EPA has only evaluated the health effects of 10% of the active ingredients of all pesticides.
Cite lack of funding for complex and lengthy project 21

22. Food Quality Protection Act
Chapter 12

23. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
The Food Quality Protection Act strengthens FIFRA by reducing the allowable level of chemicals by a factor of 10 for which the health effects are still unknown.
Precautionary Principle 23

24. The Kyoto Protocol
Chapter 19

25. The Kyoto Protocol
In 1997, delegates from 161 countries met in Kyoto, Japan to negotiate a treaty on global warming which went into effect January, 2005.
It requires 38 participating developed countries to cut their emissions of CO2, CH4, and N2O to 5.2% below their 1990 levels by 2012.
This represents a reduction of 2010 levels by 29%
The protocol implements a “cap-and-trade” program that involves setting a cap or limit on emissions.
If a country emits less than their allowed limit, they can sell the remaining allowances to another country.
Many countries distribute their allowance to specific companies or power plants.
Developing countries were excluded. 25

26. The Kyoto Protocol
191 countries have signed and ratified the protocol.
U.S. signed the protocol but has not ratified it.
Developing countries such as China, India and Brazil were considered exempt
Belief that it would hurt the U.S. economy
The U.S. did not sign, but 10 U.S. states and 740 U.S. Cities are participating.
The Kyoto Protocol will have little effect on global warming without support and action by the U.S., China, and India. 26

27. U.S. Mining Law of 1872
Chapter 14

28. U.S. General Mining Law of 1872
Encouraged mineral exploration and mining of hard-rock minerals (gold, silver, copper, nickel) on U.S. public lands
Developed to encourage settling the West (1800s)
Until 1995, land could be bought for 1872 prices
Estimated $285 billion of mineral resources now owned/ controlled by private companies, 1/5 are foreign.

29. The Montreal Protocol & The Copenhagen Protocol
Chapter 19

30. Montreal Protocol & Copenhagen Protocol
Montreal Protocol – A 1987 international treaty that controls the production and consumption of chemicals that destroy the ozone layer.
Later strengthened and accelerated in 1992 by the Copenhagen Protocol.
191 countries have ratified this treaty and many of them do not produce or consume any CFCs.
Substitutes for CFCs are available.
Some developing countries still use CFCs and other damaging chemicals.

31. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
Chapter 21

32. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
Our nation's primary law governing the disposal of solid and hazardous waste
Congress passed RCRA in 1976 to address the increasing problem of our growing municipal and industrial waste
RCRA banned all open dumping of waste, encouraged source reduction and recycling, and promoted the safe disposal of municipal waste and mandated strict controls over the storage, and disposal of hazardous waste.

33. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
Under this law, the EPA :
Categorizes hazardous wastes into specific categories and sets standards for each one
Issues permits that allow the production and disposal of a certain amount of wastes in certain ways
Requires permit holders to keep track of their wastes from “cradle-to-grave”
Cradle – where/who it was produced
Grave – where/how it is disposed of

34. U.S. Safe Drinking Water Act
Chapter 20

35. U.S. Safe Drinking Water Act
The U.S. Safe Drinking Water Act requires the EPA to establish national drinking water standards (maximum contaminant levels) for any pollutant that may have adverse effects on human health.
Originally, it only focused on standards for water treatment
Now, it includes protections for drinking water sources as well
rivers, lakes, springs, groundwater

36. U.S. Safe Drinking Water Act
The U.N. estimates that 5.6 million Americans drink water that does not meet EPA standards.
1 in 5 Americans drinks water from a treatment plant that violated one or more safety standard.
Industry pressures to weaken the Safe Drinking Act:
Eliminate national tests and public notification of violations
Allow rights to pollute if provider cannot afford to comply
Reduce EPA’s budget which limits its ability to monitor and enforce water quality standards

37. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
Chapter 14

38. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977
Requires the reclamation of land surfaced mined for coal. There are no laws to control or reclaim lands from other types of mines, like hard-rock, etc.
Reclamation – an attempt to return mined land back to its original state (or at least a functional ecosystem)
Recreation
Commercial use

39. The Wilderness Act
Chapter 10

40. Wilderness Act of 1964 Wilderness Act of 1964
Established 9.1 million acres of federally protected wilderness in national forests
Wilderness is land legally set aside in a large enough area to prevent or minimize harm from human activities.
Only a small percentage of the land area of the United States has been protected as wilderness.