1. Chapter 11: Congress

2. The Origin and Powers of Congress
The Great Compromise
Representation in the House is based on population
Each state has two senators (equal representation for small states)

3. The Origin and Powers of Congress
Duties of the House and Senate
The House of Representatives
Initiates impeachment proceedings against a President or other government official
Originates revenue bills
The Senate
Votes to convict impeached President or other officials
Must approve major presidential appointments
Sole power to affirm treaties

4. Electing Congress The Incumbency Effect
Incumbent: a current officeholder
Incumbents have a very high reelection rate
Yet the public does not hold Congress in very high esteem
Voters seem only to be satisfied with their own representatives

5. Electing Congress The Incumbency Effect Redistricting
Gerrymandering: redrawing a congressional district to intentionally benefit one party
May be done to benefit incumbents

6. Electing Congress The Incumbency Effect Name Recognition
Recognition increased by being member of Congress
Franking privilege: the right to send mail free of charge

7. Electing Congress The Incumbency Effect Casework
Casework: solving problems for constituents, especially problems involving government agencies
Structure of congressional offices is built around casework

8. Electing Congress The Incumbency Effect Campaign Financing
Incumbents have significant advantage in fundraising
PACs have strong preference for incumbents

9. Electing Congress The Incumbency Effect Successful Challengers
The opposing party and sympathetic PACs may target vulnerable incumbents, thus giving a challenger a better chance to succeed
Vulnerable incumbents bring out higher quality challengers

10. Electing Congress The Incumbency Effect 2002 and 2006 Elections
Off-year election: the congressional election between presidential elections
Traditionally not good for party holding the White House
2002: only 3rd time since the Civil War the President’s party has gained House seats at midterm

11. Electing Congress Whom Do We Elect?
Most members of Congress are professionals
Women and minorities have long been underrepresented, but numbers are increasing
Descriptive representation: a belief that constituents are most effectively represented by legislators who are similar to them in such key demographic characteristics as race, ethnicity, religion or gender
Voting Rights Act of 1982 provided support for descriptive representation

12. Electing Congress Whom Do We Elect?
Racial gerrymandering: the drawing of legislative districts to maximize the chance that a minority candidate will win election
Shaw v. Reno (1993) deemed racial gerrymandering unconstitutional
Supreme Court modified this position in 2001, saying race could be a consideration in drawing congressional districts

13. Not Exactly a Vote of Confidence

14. How Issues Get on the Congressional Agenda
Agenda: the broad, imprecise, and unwritten agenda comprising all the issues an institution is considering
Many issues have been on the agenda a long time
Other issues emerge suddenly, often due to technological change

15. How Issues Get on the Congressional Agenda
Issues may reach the agenda in many ways
A highly visible event (like Sept. 11th) draws our attention to a problem
Presidential support
Congressional party leaders and committee chairs
Interest group efforts

16. The Dance of Legislation: An Overview
Series of specific steps, but legislation can be treated differently at each step
Introduction  Assigned to committee  Assigned to subcommittee
Subcommittee may hold hearings; bill is modified or revised; if passed is sent to full committee
Bill approved by full committee is reported to the entire chamber
Chamber may debate, amend, and pass or defeat

17. The Dance of Legislation: An Overview
Bills coming out of House committees go to Rules committee
Rules committee attaches rule to the bill that governs floor debate
On major legislation, rules can be complex
Senate does not have comparable committee

18. The Dance of Legislation: An Overview
Senate and House versions have to be reconciled by conference committee
Compromise version has to go to both houses for a vote
If both chambers approve, bill goes to president

19. The Dance of Legislation: An Overview
President’s action
Sign
Veto
Neither sign nor veto within 10 days  bill becomes law
Neither sign nor veto within 10 days but Congress adjourns  pocket veto
Content of bill can be changed at any time in legislative process

20. The Legislative Process

21. Committees: The Workhorses of Congress
Committees develop and use expertise in specific areas
Committee types
Standing
Joint
Select
Conference

22. Committees: The Workhorses of Congress
Congressional Expertise and Seniority
Influence on committees grows formally with seniority
Influence on committees grows informally with increased expertise
Senior member of the majority party usually becomes the committee chair

23. Committees: The Workhorses of Congress
Public policy decision-making takes place in committees
Committees hold hearings
Markup sessions: the meetings at which committees debate and amend legislation

24. Committees: The Workhorses of Congress
Oversight: the process of reviewing the operations of an agency to determine whether it is carrying out policies as Congress intended
Oversight has become more difficult
Congress has added resources to perform the oversight function
Majoritarian and Pluralist Views of Committees

25. Leaders and Followers in Congress
The parties’ leadership hierarchy
Rules of Procedure
Amendments
House: amendments must be germane
Senate: non-germane amendments are generally accepted
Floor debate
House: Rules Committee governs floor debate
Senate: Debate governed by unanimous consent agreement

26. Leaders and Followers in Congress
Norms of Behavior
Unwritten codes of behavior to keep things running
Members show respect for their colleagues
Members should be willing to bargain with one another
Some norms have changed in recent years

27. The Legislative Environment
Political parties
Have limited, but important, resources to influence members of Congress
Party leaders can help or hinder rank-and-file members in many ways
Partisanship is rising

28. The Legislative Environment
The President
Presidents capitalize on nationwide popular election
Public expects president to be legislator-in-chief
Hundreds of legislative liaison personnel work for executive branch

29. The Legislative Environment
Constituents
Constituents: people who live and work in a government official’s district
Members have to think about what the voters at home want

30. The Legislative Environment
Interest groups
A way for constituents to influence Congress
Sources of useful information
Recent scandals raise concerns about conflicts of interest

31. The Dilemma of Representation
Presidents and Shopping Bags
Members of Congress live in two worlds
Washington: dealing with great issues of national concern
Back in the district or state: meeting with constituents, giving speeches to local groups
Legislators work hard to keep in touch with constituents

32. The Dilemma of Representation
Trustees or Delegates?
Trustee: a representative who is obligated to consider the views of constituents but is not obligated to vote according to those views if he or she believes they are misguided
Delegate: a legislator whose primary responsibility is to represent the majority view of his or her constituents, regardless of his or her own view

33. Pluralism, Majoritarianism and Democracy
The Dilemmas of Members of Congress
If legislators act as delegates, policymaking is more pluralistic
If legislators act as trustees, policymaking is still not guaranteed to reflect majority interests
True majoritarianism requires paramount role for political parties

34. Pluralism, Majoritarianism and Democracy
Parliamentary Government
Parliamentary system
Fit the majoritarian model of democracy to a much greater extent than does Congress

35. Pluralism vs. Majoritarianism in Congress
Congress’s inability to reduce the budget deficit reflects the pluralistic nature of congressional policymaking
Growing partisanship represents trend toward majoritarianism