1. Struggles for Independence

2. The End of Empire in World History
India, Pakistan, Burma, Indonesia, Iraq, Jordan, and Israel won independence in 1940s
African independence came between mid-1950s and mid-1970s (50%)
Imperial breakup wasn’t new – Popular Sovereignty was

3. The Fall of Empires
Fall of many empires in the twentieth century - Austrian and Ottoman empires collapsed in the wake of World War I - Russian Empire collapsed but was soon recreated - USSR - German/Japanese empires ended with World War II
Disintegration of the USSR (1991) was propelled by national self-determination (creation of 15 new states)

4. Explanations for Decolonization
Contradictions - Christianity didn’t fit the reality of racism, exploitation, and poverty - Europeans’ democratic values were in conflict with colonial dictatorship - ideal of national self-determination was at odds with repression of the same in colonies

5. How Empires Ended
Timing of Decolonization - world wars had weakened Europe and undermined ”European superiority” - United States and USSR opposed older European colonial empires - UN provided a platform for anti-colonial moves
The role of specific groups and individuals - often, colonial powers themselves planned for independence of colonies - pressure of nationalist movements - millions of ordinary people joined in

6. Decolonization of Africa

7. The Case of India: Ending British Rule
Before 1900, few people of the Indian subcontinent thought of themselves as “Indians” - cultural identity was primarily local - diversity was enormous
British rule promoted a growing sense of Indian identity - unlike earlier foreign rulers, the British didn’t assimilate - Indians shared more similarities to each other than to the rulers - British communications and administrative networks, schools, and use of English bound India together

8. Indian National Congress (INC) est. 1885
Association of English-educated, high-caste Hindus - first asked for a greater role in British India - British rejected their claim to speak for all Indians - the INC became popular post-WWI , Britain promised future of self-government - British attacks on the Ottoman Empire antagonized Muslim Indians - repressive actions by the British caused outrage

9. Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948)
Studied law in England but wasn’t a very successful lawyer
1893, joined a movement to fight racial segregation - developed a notion of India that included both Hindus and Muslims - developed the satyagraha (“truth force”) active but nonviolent confrontation

10. Ghandi in the INC
In India, Gandhi became a leader of the INC s -30s: mass campaigns that won massive public support - British responded with repression and concessions - Gandhi transformed the INC into a mass organization
Gandhi won the name “Mahatma” (Great Soul) - attacked not just colonial rule but also mistreatment of India’s untouchables and the evils of modernization

11. Gandhi and Nehru (1st prime minister of India 1947)

12. People Dislike Gandhi?
Especially important was a growing Muslim/Hindu divide : creation of an All-India Muslim League - Hindu politicians defined the struggle in religious terms
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, head of the Muslim League - argued that Muslim areas should be separate (Pakistan) - independence in 1947 created two countries - Pakistan (Muslim) - India (secular but mostly Hindu)
Process was accompanied by massive violence - 1 million died, 12 million refugees relocated : a Hindu extremist assassinated Gandhi

13. South Africa
South Africa won freedom from Great Britain in but its government was controlled by a white settler minority - so the black South African freedom struggle was against an internal opponent - white population was split - British descendants (had economic superiority) - Afrikaners (Boers) of Dutch descent (had political dominance) - white groups felt threatened by any move toward black majority rule

14. Race and Economy in S. Africa
Early 1900s - South Africa had a mature industrial economy - by the 1960s, had major foreign investments and loans - black South Africans: dependent on the white-controlled economy
The issue of race was overwhelmingly prominent - policy of apartheid tried to keep blacks and white completely separate, while retaining black labor power - enormous repressive powers enforced social segregation

15. Apartheid

16. The ANC and Protest
African National Congress (ANC) founded in like India’s INC, it consisted of elite Africans who wanted a voice in society - for 40 years, the ANC was peaceful and moderate s: moved to nonviolent civil disobedience - the government’s response was overwhelming repression - 69 unarmed demonstrators shot at Sharpville in ANC was banned and its leadership imprisoned

17. Violence in Africa
Underground nationalist leaders turned to sabotage and assassination - opposition came to focus on student groups - Soweto uprising (1976) was the start of spreading violence - organization of strikes

18. Protest Against Apartheid

19. International Pressure Helps Bring an End to Apartheid
Growing international pressure - exclusion from international sporting events - economic boycotts - withdrawal of private investment funds
Negotiations began in the late 1980s - key apartheid policies were abandoned - Mandela was freed and the ANC legalized
1994: national elections brought the ANC to power - apartheid was ended without major bloodshed - most important threat was a number of separatist and “Africans only” groups

20. Nelson Mandela

21. Experiments with Freedom
With freedom this problem arises: How to create economic development, industrial growth, unification, and political participation
Third World (developing countries, the Global South)
1950–2000: developing nations contained 75 percent of world population
Political order inhibited by: - explosive population growth - high expectations for independence - cultural diversity, with little loyalty to a central state

22. The Third World

23. 1950’s : Democracy Spreads
British, French, and Belgians set up democratic institutions in their African colonies - few still survived by the early 1970s - many were swept away by military coups - some evolved into one-party systems
In India, Western-style democracy succeeded - power was handed over gradually - many more Indians than Africans had administrative and technical skills at the time of independence - INC embraced nationalist movement, less internal discord than in Africa

24. African Problems with Democracy
Africans initially rejected democracy - Arguments - not ready for democracy or lacked some necessary element? - communal culture was not compatible with party politics? - Democracy was inadequate to the task of development?
Economic disappointment discredited early African democracies - economic performance since independence has been poor - widespread economic hardship

25. Troubles with Democracy
The well-educated elite benefited most, obtaining high-paying bureaucratic jobs that caused resentment
Economic resentment found expression in ethnic conflict
Repeatedly, the military took power in a crisis
Starting in the 1980s, Western-style democracy has resurfaced

26. African Dictators. Why were we giving these guys millions?

27. Experiments in Economic Development
Problems - little infrastructure for modern development - most developing countries didn’t have leverage in negotiation with wealthy nations and corporations - African leaders got contradictory advice on how to develop successfully
Until the fall of the Soviet Union, many developing countries followed the state-run model
After fall of USSR, west pushed democracy on developing markets

28. Berlin Wall Falls

29. Economic Development Varied
East Asia has been the most successful s: India opened itself to the world market - several Latin American states developed industrially
Most of Africa, much of the Arab world, and parts of Asia didn’t catch up, and standards of living often declined
No general agreement about why such great variations developed

30. Westernization in Turkey
Turkey and Iran – different approaches
Turkey: emerged in the wake of World War I, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk - major cultural revolution in the 1920s and 1930s - effort to create a thoroughly modern, Western society - much of the Islamic parts of society were abolished - effort to keep Islam personal, rather than an official part of public life

31. Turkey Changes
Men ordered not to wear the fez; many elite women gave up the veil
Women gained legal rights - polygamy was abolished - women got the vote (1930s)
State-organized enterprises were set up
Government remained authoritarian, although a parliamentary system emerged after 1938

32. Didim, Turkey: Beach Resort

33. Iran: the center of Islamic revival (1970s)
Growing opposition to Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi’s modernizing, secularizing, U.S.-supported government - many of the shah’s reforms offended traditional Islamic practices - the mosque became the main center of opposition to the government - Shia ulama had stayed independent from the state - Shia leaders became the voice of opposition, especially the Ayatollah Khomeini

34. Ayatollah Khomeini Shah was forced to abdicate in 1979
Khomeini assumed control of the state - established the sharia as the law of the land - secular officials were purged - rejection of many Western practices as anti-Islamic
Islamic revolution in Iran wasn’t revolutionary in social terms
Iran also continued to work on economic modernity

35. Shah and Ayatollah
Ayatollah Khomeini often speaks to millions about how the USA is the “devil” and how Israel will be “wiped off the face of the earth”.

36. Reflections
It is difficult for historians to discuss more recent events and themes like those described in this chapter, because that history is still in the making. - detachment is difficult - we don’t know the final outcomes