1. PART II
Physical Layer

2. Position of the physical layer

3. Services

4. Chapters
Chapter 3 Signals
Chapter 4 Digital Transmission
Chapter 5 Analog Transmission
Chapter 6 Multiplexing
Chapter 7 Transmission Media
Chapter 8 Circuit Switching and Telephone Network
Chapter 9 High Speed Digital Access

5. Chapter 7
Transmission Media

6. Transmission medium and physical layer
Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and directly controlled by the physical layer.
Computer and other telecommunication devices use signals to represent data. These signals are transmitted from one device to another in the form of electromagnetic energy, which is propagated through transmission media.

7. Classes of Transmission Media
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another. Signal travelling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium.

8. Twisted-Pair Cable
One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two levels.
In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals. The receiver at the end, however, operates only on the difference between these unwanted signals. This means that if the two wires are affected by noise or crosstalk equally, the receiver is immune (the difference is zero).
The number of twists per unit of length (e.g., inch) determines the quality of the cable; more twists mean better quality.

9. UTP and STP
STP cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors.
Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.

10. Table 7.1 Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
Category
Bandwidth
Data Rate
Digital/Analog
Use 1
very low
< 100 kbps
Analog
Telephone 2
< 2 MHz
2 Mbps
Analog/digital
T-1 lines 3
16 MHz
10 Mbps
Digital
LANs 4
20 MHz
20 Mbps 5
100 MHz
100 Mbps
6 (draft)
200 MHz
200 Mbps
7 (draft)
600 MHz
600 Mbps

11. UTP connector RJ45 (Registered Jack) is the most common UTP connector.
RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in only one way.

12. Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently.
Coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as a second conductor, which completes the circuit.
This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.

13. Each Radio Government (RG) number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing.
Table 7.2 Categories of coaxial cables
Category
Impedance
Use
RG-59
75 W
Cable TV
RG-58
50 W
Thin Ethernet
RG-11
Thick Ethernet

14. BNC connectors Bayone-Neill-Concelman Connectors
Three popular types are BNC connector, BNC T connector, BNC Terminator.
BNC Connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device, such as a TV set. The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out a cable for connection to a computer or other devices.

15. Bending of light ray
Fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it.

16. Propagation modes
Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the core in different paths.
Multimode step-index fiber
Density of the core remains constant from the center to the edges
Beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding.
At the interface, there is an abrupt change to a lower density that alters the angle of the beam’s motion. The term step index refers to the suddenness of this change.

17. Modes Multimode graded-index Fiber Single mode Fiber
The word index here refers to the index of refraction that is related to density.
Single mode Fiber
Single mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.

18. Modes

19. Multimode, graded-index
Table 7.3 Fiber types
Type
Core µm
Cladding
Mode
50/125 50
125
Multimode, graded-index
62.5/125
62.5
100/125
100
7/125 7
Single-mode

20. Fiber construction Outer jacket is made of either PVC or Teflon.
Inside the jacket are Kevlar strands to strengthen the cable. Kevlar is a strong material used in the fabrication of bulletproof vests.
Below the Kevlar is another plastic coating to cushion the fiber. The fiber is at the center of the cable, and it consists of cladding and core.

21. Fiber-optic cable connectors
Three different types of connectors
Subscriber channel (SC) connector is used in cable TV. It uses a push/pull locking system.
Straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to networking devices. It uses a bayonet locking system and is more reliable than SC.
MT-RJ is a new connector with the same size as RJ-45
Fiber optic has several advantages over metallic cable
Higher bandwidth, less signal attenuation, immunity to electromagnetic interference, resistance to corrosive materials, light weight, more immune to tapping.
Disadvantages: Installation/maintenance [need expertise], Unidirectional [propagation of light is unidirectional], Cost.

22. Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication
Unguided Media: Wireless
Signals can travel via ground propagation, sky propagation, line-of-sight propagation.

23. Table 7.4 Bands Band Range Propagation Application VLF 3–30 KHz Ground
Long-range radio navigation LF
30–300 KHz
Radio beacons and navigational locators MF
300 KHz–3 MHz
Sky
AM radio HF
3–30 MHz
Citizens band (CB), ship/aircraft communication
VHF
30–300 MHz
Sky and line-of-sight
VHF TV, FM radio
UHF
300 MHz–3 GHz
Line-of-sight
UHF TV, cellular phones, paging, satellite
SHF
3–30 GHz
Satellite communication
EHF
30–300 GHz

24. Wireless transmission waves

25. Omnidirectional antennas
Radio waves are electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz and those between 1 and 300 GHz are called Microwaves.
Radio waves
Omnidirectional; Propagate to long distances
Can penetrate walls and so no boundary.
Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and paging systems

26. Unidirectional antennas
Microwaves are unidirectional.
Very high frequency microwave cannot penetrate walls.
Parabolic dish antenna
Every line parallel to the line of symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at angles such that all the lines intersect in a common point called the focus.
Horn antenna
Outgoing transmissions are broadcast up a stem (resembling a handle) and deflected outward in a series of narrow parallel beams by the curved head.
Received transmissions are collected by the scooped shape of the horn, in a manner similar to the parabolic dish, and are deflected down into the stem.
Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs

27. Infrared Signals 300 GHz to 400 THz.
Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-of-sight propagation
Cannot penetrate walls.
Some manufacturers provide a special port called the IrDA port that allows a wireless keyboard to communicate with a PC.