2. Supplements
The following students supplements are available with the textbook:
The Kottak Anthropology Atlas, available shrink-wrapped with the text, offers 26 anthropology related reference maps.
The Student's Online Learning Center features a large number of helpful study tools and self quizzes, interactive exercises and activities, links, readings and useful information at
PowerWeb, available via a link on the Student's Online Learning Center, offers help with online research by providing access to high quality academic sources."

3. This chapter introduces students to the study of living, non-human primates. It discusses the basic classification of primates and all of the classes of living primates. It also examines the similarities and differences between non-human primates and humans.
The Primates

4. Definitions of key terms
Taxonomy: the assignment of organisms to categories.
Hominoidea (hominoids): the superfamily containing humans and apes.
Phylogeny: genetic relatedness based on common ancestry.

5. Phylogenetic Classification
Organisms are placed in classifications, which are arranged hierarchically according to degree of genetic relatedness.
Species are constituted by organisms whose mating produces viable and fertile offspring.
See table 4.1 for a complete statement of the phylogenetic classification of modern humans.

6. Homologies and Analogies
Similarities that organisms share because of common ancestry are called homologies.
The presence of homologies is the principal factor in determining how organisms are assigned to taxonomic categories.
Analogies
Analogies are similarities between species that are the result of similar adaptation to similar selective pressures--analogies are not the result of common ancestry.
The process which leads to analogies is called convergent evolution.

7. Primate Tendencies
While the primate order is extremely diverse, its members do share a significant number of homologies derived from common arboreal ancestors.
Grasping (precision grip, thumb opposability, nails instead of claws).
Smell to Sight (eye placement, brain organization, and color vision all reflect a primate emphasis upon sight over smell--not that some of these features are not common to all primates in the same degree).
Nose to Hand (increasing reliance on sense of touch as opposed to muzzle, whiskers for information).

8. Primate Tendencies (cont.)
Brain Complexity (the brain areas devoted to thought, memory, and association are more elaborate and proportionally larger).
Parental Investment (single offspring births combined with longer development periods stemming from neotony).
Sociality (strongly associated with parental investment, cooperative social groups are selected for in part because of the needs arising from primate parenting).

9. Prosimians Prosimians vs. Anthropoids Lemurs and Tarsiers
Prosimians and anthropoids constitute the two suborders of primates.
30 million years ago, prosimians were driven from niches by better adapted anthropoids.
Lemurs and Tarsiers
Most of the remaining prosimians, by far, are lemurs.
These live only in Madagascar, which separated from Africa prior to the development of anthropoids.
Tarsiers survived in Asia, where there are monkeys, by adapting to night conditions (monkeys are not nocturnal).

10. Anthropoids
Vision
Evolutionary changes in vision probably occurred in response to the pressures of an arboreal habitat.
Binocular, stereoscopic vision and color vision may have been selected due to the improved depth perception it endows (locomotion, catching insects, identifying edible fruits).
The arboreal habitat (climbing, feeding) and the increasingly social environment (mutual grooming, tool making) were likely factors in selecting for increased manual tactility.
Proportionately larger (than prosimians) brain mass and emphasis on memory and cognition were likely selected for by the social environment.

11. Platyrrhines and Catarrhines
There are two anthropoid infraorders: platyrrhines (flat-nosed, New World monkeys) and catarrhines (sharp-nosed, Old World monkeys, hominoids).
Unlike hominoids, monkeys’ rear and fore limbs articulate from their bodies as do dogs’.
Most monkeys have tails.

12. New World Monkeys
New World monkeys’ traits: universally arboreal, some brachiate, some have prehensile tails (among primates, a trait exclusive to the New World).
The brachiation of New World monkeys and the brachiation of gibbons constitute an analogy.

13. Old World Monkeys Old World monkeys are both terrestrial and arboreal.
Significant distinctions existing between arboreal and terrestrial Old World monkeys include size (arboreal monkeys are smaller than terrestrial monkeys) and sexual dimorphism (terrestrial males are significantly larger and fiercer than terrestrial females, while little or no such differentiation exists among arboreal monkeys).

14. Apes
Old World Monkeys comprise the superfamily Cercopithecoidea, while humans and apes are in the superfamily Hominoidea.
Hominoidea is subdivided into three families.
Hominids (humans and their fossil ancestors).
Pongids (“great apes”: gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangutan).
Hylobatids (gibbons and siamangs).
Recent biochemical evidence suggests that gorillas and chimpanzees are almost as closely related to humans as they are to each other.

15. Apes Gibbons Orangutans Gorillas
Gibbons are small, arboreal, mate for life, and produce few offspring.
Their principal mode of locomotion is brachiation.
Orangutans
Orangutans are relatively large (up to 200 pounds), solitary, and markedly sexually dimorphic.
Orangutans move between arboreal and terrestrial habitats.
Gorillas
Gorillas are large (up to 400 pounds), the most sexually dimorphic of all primates, and are primarily terrestrial.
They live in relatively stable social groups, typically led by a mature silver-back male.

16. Chimpanzees
There are two kinds of chimpanzee: the common (Pan troglodytes) and the pygmy (Pan paniscus).
The common chimpanzee is found in western central Africa and western Africa.
Size range is up to 200 pounds, and sexual dimorphism is proportionally the same as in humans.
Chimpanzee social organization is relatively well-known, because of the longitudinal studies done by Goodall and other primatologists.

17. Bonobos Bonobos belong to the species Pan paniscus.
Bonobos live in the humid forests of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Bonobo communities are female-centered, peace-loving, and egalitarian.
Bonobos frequently use sex to avoid conflict within the community.

18. Endangered Primates
Humans are the only hominoids that are not endangered.
Deforestation, poaching, and the capture of primates have all contributed to the demise of wild primate populations.

19. Human-Primate Similarities
Learning
Neotony and life in cooperative social groups allow primates to learn behavior from their fellows, rather than relying only on genetically encoded behaviors.
Learned behavior has been observed in monkeys as well as apes.
Tools
Tool use allows primates to adapt to a wider range of niches more quickly than physiological adaptation alone (although primates are not the only animals that use tools).
Wild chimps have been observed constructing tools.

20. Human-Primate Similarities (cont.)
Predation and Hunting
Hunting is a regular and normal component of wild chimpanzee behavior.
Hunting by chimps is both opportunistic and planned.
Wild chimpanzees have been observed hunting consistently, using cooperative techniques, with some sex specialization (males hunt more than females).
Aggression and Resources
The capacity for hunting exists among many different primates, but expression of this capacity can depend upon environmental pressure and opportunity.
Observations of chimps and orangutans indicate that aggressive behavior (“warfare,” in some chimp cases) may increase when territorial encroachment occurs.

21. Human-Primate Differences
Sharing, Cooperation, and Division of Labor
Sharing and cooperation are common to most primates; however, humans do it much more complexly.
Human foraging bands tend to have a sexual division of labor (e.g., men hunt, women gather); other primates do not.
Homo sapiens is the only primate species that engages in food sharing consistently on a large scale.
Mating and Kinship
Human females do not experience estrus.
Marriage and kinship are two exclusively, universally human systems that give identity and stability to certain types of human relationships in a way that is absent from other primate social systems.

22. Behavioral Ecology and Fitness
Behavioral ecology studies the evolutionary basis for behavior.
Types of Fitness
Individual fitness is the number of direct descendents an individual organism has.
Inherent in this notion, as seen in terms of natural selection, is the implication that any individual’s fitness competes with that of its conspecifics.
A model attributing a drive to protect one’s individual fitness to all organisms could not explain altruistic or self-sacrificing behavior.
Inclusive fitness is a theoretical concept developed to account for unselfish behavior and is defined as “reproductive success measured by the representation [in succeeding generations] of genes one shares with other, related animals.”