1. What is the smallest particle of sugar that is still sugar?
8.1 The nature of matter
Matter is a term used to describe anything that has mass and takes up space.
From a distance, a sugar cube looks like a single piece of matter.
What is the smallest particle of sugar that is still sugar?

2. 8.1 The nature of matter
Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus proposed that matter is made of tiny particles called atoms.
Atoms were an idea that few believed.
The first evidence was called Brownian motion for Robert Brown, who first noticed the jerky motion of tiny particles.

3. 8.1 Elements
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into other substance by chemical or physical means.
All of the matter you are ever likely to experience is made from one or more elements in nature.

4. 8.1 Elements
For example, water can be broken down into its elements, hydrogen and oxygen, when energy is added.

5. 8.1 Atoms
A single atom is the smallest particle that retains the chemical identity of the element.

6. 8.1 Atoms
Carbon atoms are different from sodium, aluminum, or oxygen atoms.
They have different masses.

7. 8.1 Compounds and elements
Compounds are two or more different elements chemically bonded together.

8. 8.1 Molecules
A molecule is a group of two or more atoms joined together chemically.

9. 8.1 Mixtures
Many substances you encounter are a mixture of different elements and compounds.
How many atoms are in this mixture? How many molecules are in this mixture?

10. 8.1 Elements, compounds, and mixtures
Can you distinguish between atoms and molecules in these diagrams?

11. 8.1 Classifying matter
Matter can be divided into two categories: pure substances and mixtures.
A pure substance cannot be separated into different kinds of matter by physical means such as sorting, filtering, heating, or cooling.

12. 8.1 Classifying matter
A mixture contains a combination of different elements and/or compounds.
All mixtures share one common property: They can be physically separated.

13. 8.1 Classifying matter A homogeneous mixture is the same throughout.
Most brass is made of 70 percent copper and 30 percent zinc.
If you cut a brass candlestick into ten pieces, each piece would contain the same percentage of copper and zinc.

14. 8.1 Classifying matter
A heterogeneous mixture is one in which different samples are not necessarily made up of exactly the same proportions of matter.
One spoonful of chicken soup might contain broth, noodles, and chicken, while another contains only broth.

15. Chapter 8.2 Learning Goals
Define temperature in terms of the motion of atoms and molecules.
Convert among Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin scales.
Describe the relationship between thermal energy and temperature.

16. 8.2 Temperature There are two common temperature scales.
On the Fahrenheit scale, water freezes at 32 degrees and boils at 212 degrees.
The Celsius scale divides the interval between the freezing and boiling points of water into 100 degrees.
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17. 8.2 What temperature really is
Atoms are in constant motion, even in a solid object.
The back-and-forth jiggling of atoms is caused by thermal energy, which is a kind of kinetic energy.

18. 8.2 What temperature really is
Temperature measures the kinetic energy per molecule due to random motion.

19. 8.2 Thermometers
A thermometer is an instrument that measures the temperature.
Most thermometers contain either a silvery fluid (mercury) or a red fluid, which is alcohol containing a small amount of red dye.

20. 8.2 How a thermometer works
The volume of alcohol in a thermometer contains huge numbers of alcohol molecules.
As temperature increases, the alcohol molecules move faster and bounce off each other.
The liquid alcohol expands and takes up more space in the thermometer.

21. 8.2 Measuring temperature
A thermistor is a device that changes its electrical resistance as the temperature changes.
Some digital thermometers sense temperature by measuring the resistance of electrons passing through wire.

22. 8.2 Liquid-crystal thermometers
Some thermometers contain liquid crystals that change color based on temperature.
As temperature increases, the molecules of the liquid crystal bump into each other more and more.
This causes a change in the structure of the crystals, which in turn affects their color.

23. 8.2 Absolute zero Absolute zero is -273°C.
You cannot have a temperature lower than absolute zero.
Think of absolute zero as the temperature at which atoms are “frozen.”

24. 8.2 Converting to Kelvin
The Kelvin temperature scale is useful in science because it starts at absolute zero.
To convert from Celsius to Kelvin, you add 273 to the temperature in Celsius.

25. 8.3 Phases of Matter
On Earth, pure substances are usually found as solids, liquids, or gases.
These are called phases of matter.

26. 8.3 The phases of matter A solid holds its shape and does not flow.
The molecules in a solid vibrate in place, but on average, don’t move far from their places.

27. 10.3 The phases of matter
A liquid holds its volume, but does not hold its shape— it flows.
Liquids flow because the molecules can move around.

28. 10.3 The phases of matter
A gas flows like a liquid, but can also expand or contract to fill a container.
A gas does not hold its own volume or shape.
The molecules in a gas have enough energy to completely break away from each other.

29. 8.3 The phases of matter
When they are close together, molecules are attracted through intermolecular forces.

30. 8.3 The phases of matter
The forces in chemical bonds are stronger than intermolecular forces.

31. 8.3 Intermolecular forces
Within all matter, there is a constant competition between temperature and intermolecular forces.
When temperature wins the competition, molecules fly apart and you have a gas.
When intermolecular forces win the competition, molecules clump tightly together and you have a solid.

32. 8.3 Melting and boiling
The melting point is the temperature at which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid.

33. 8.3 Melting and boiling
The temperature at which a liquid becomes a gas is called the boiling point.

34. 8.3 Melting and boiling points of common substances
Materials have a wide range of melting and boiling points.

35. 8.3 Sublimation
Sometimes a solid can change directly to a gas when heat energy is added.
This process is called sublimation.

36. 8.3 Plasma
In the plasma phase, matter becomes ionized as electrons are broken loose from atoms.
The Sun is made of plasma, as is most of the universe, including the Orion nebula.