1. BACKGROUND Experiment Current study Results Discussion Elevator Task
Language learning as cognitive training: attentional improvement after a one-week intensive Gaelic course
Madeleine R Long, Mariana Vega-Mendoza, Antonella Sorace, Thomas H Bak
BACKGROUND
Bilingualism & cognition: The big debate
Most studies examine early acquisition and
balanced command of languages.
Recent research in those who have learned languages in adulthood without reaching native-like proficiency suggests similar cognitive effects as classic bilinguals. (Bak, Nissan, Allerhand, & Deary, 2014; Bak, Vega-Mendoza, & Sorace, 2014; Tao, Marzecová, Taft, Asanowicz, & Wodniecka, 2011).
These findings, emphasizing the importance of language learning and use, link bilingualism to cognitive reserve (Stern, 2002).
Bilingualism Studies
Correlation Studies
Bilingualism and cognitive benefits: The evidence is inconsistent.
Intervention Studies
Physical activity
Mental activity
Better performance in old age
Familiar, less taxing activity
Novel, cognitively demanding activity
Better results in bilinguals- from childhood, to old age, and dementia.
(Bialystok & Viswanathan, 2009; Kavé, Eyal, Shorek, & Cohen-Mansfield, 2008)
Very few studies show an opposite effect, namely a bilingual disadvantage.
(de Bruin, Treccani, & Della Sala, 2014)
No difference between bilinguals and monolinguals.
(Paap & Greenberg, 2013)
(Lampit, Hallock, & Valenzuela, 2014; Park et al., 2014)
(Scarmeas & Stern, 2003; Vemuri et al. 2014)
Elevator Task
measures sustained attention
Elevator Task with Distraction
measures selective attention and inhibitory skills
Elevator Task with Reversal
measures attentional switching and working memory
Experiment
Test of Everyday Attention (TEA)
Current study
HYPOTHESIS
L2 learning, an example of a cognitively demanding novel activity, will lead to improved cognitive performance as early as one week after an intensive course. intensive course.
RESEARCH QUESTION
Count a tone of the same pitch presented at irregular intervals
PARTICIPANTS
33 language learners (LLs) & 34 controls
18 Passive
16 Active
Ignore high tones while counting low tones
METHODS
Participants were administered three auditory subtests of the TEA to measure changes in attention and EF before and after a week-long course.
Count middle tones while adding with high tones and subtracting with low tones
Results
Linear trend performance on ETR for the LL, AC, and PC groups
Group performance on TEA tasks
Group performance on TEA tasks
Individual performance on ETR pre-course and nine months later
ETR performance for LLs divided into three age groups
ETR performance for LLs in the three levels of Gaelic proficiency
Discussion
SUMMARY
LLs experienced significant improvement in attentional switching/working memory. Improvement was found regardless of age or Gaelic level. These cognitive effects can be maintained through continued practice.
IMPLICATIONS
Novelty, challenge and effort present “desirable difficulties” contributing to a
better cognitive outcome, while continuous practice offers a mechanism to
stabilize these changes.
Bak, T. H., Nissan, J. J., Allerhand, M. M., & Deary, I. J. (2014). Does bilingualism influence cognitive aging? Annals of neurology.
Bak, T. H., Vega-Mendoza, M., & Sorace, A. (2014). Never too late? An advantage on tests of auditory attention extends to late bilinguals. Frontiers in psychology, 5.
Bialystok, E., & Viswanathan, M. (2009). Components of executive control with advantages for bilingual children in two cultures. Cognition, 112(3),
Bjork, R. A., & Kroll, J. F. (In press). Desirable Difficulties in Vocabulary Learning. American Journal of Psychology.
de Bruin, A., Treccani, B., & Della Sala, S. (2014). Cognitive Advantage in Bilingualism An Example of Publication Bias? Psychological science,
Lampit, A., Hallock, H., & Valenzuela, M. (2014). Computerized Cognitive Training in Cognitively Healthy Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Effect Modifiers. PLoS medicine, 11(11), e
Paap, K. R., & Greenberg, Z. I. (2013). There is no coherent evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive processing. Cognitive psychology, 66(2),
Park, D. C., Lodi-Smith, J., Drew, L., Haber, S., Hebrank, A., Bischof, G. N., & Aamodt, W. (2014). The Impact of Sustained Engagement on Cognitive Function in Older Adults The Synapse Project. Psychological science, 25(1),
Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8(03),
(Bjork & Kroll, 2015)
FUTURE RESEARCH
Expand data collection in Skye. Investigate other languages.