1. Neural and Hormonal Systems

2. Neuroscience and Behavior
Neural Communication
Neurons
How Neurons Communicate
How Neurotransmitters Influence Us
The Nervous System
The Peripheral Nervous System
The Central Nervous System
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

3. History of Mind Phrenology
In 1800, German physician Franz Gall suggested that bumps of the skull represented mental abilities. His theory, though incorrect, nevertheless proposed that various brain regions have particular functions.
Preview Question 1: Why do psychologists study biology?
Bettman/ Corbis

4. Neural Communication
The body’s information system is built from billions of interconnected cells called neurons or nerve cells.

5. Neural Communication
Neurobiologists and other investigators understand that humans and animals operate similarly when processing information.
Note the similarities in the above brain regions, which are all
engaged in information processing.

6. A nerve cell, or a neuron, consists of many different parts.
Preview Question 2: What are neurons, and how do they transmit information?

7. Parts of a Neuron Cell Body: Life support center of the neuron.
Dendrites: (tree) Branching extensions at the cell body. Receive messages from other neurons. DENDRITES LISTEN
Axon: Long single extension of a neuron, covered with myelin [MY-uh-lin] sheath to insulate and speed up messages through neurons. AXONS SPEAK
Terminal Branches of axon: Branched endings of an axon that transmit messages (in neurotransmitters) to other neurons.
Soma: the cell body of the neuron.

8. Interneuron Neuron (Unipolar)
Kinds of Neurons
Sensory Neurons carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the CNS. Motor Neurons carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands. Interneurons connect the two neurons.
Interneuron Neuron (Unipolar)
Sensory Neuron
(Bipolar)
Motor Neuron
(Multipolar)

9. Action Potential
A neural impulse. A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane.

10. Neurons
Depending on the type of fiber, the neural impulses travel at speeds ranging from a sluggish 2 miles an hour to 200 miles per hour.
Even this top speed is still 3 million times slower than that of electricity through a wire.
Brain is vastly more complicated than a computer, but not faster at executing simple responses.

11. Threshold
Threshold: Each neuron receives excitatory (like pushing the accelerator) and inhibitory (like pushing the brake) signals from many neurons. When the excitatory signals minus the inhibitory signals exceed a minimum intensity (threshold) the neuron fires an action potential.

12. Action Potential Properties
All-or-None Response: A neuron always fires with the same intensity. A strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more often, but it does not affect the action potentials strength or speed.
Intensity of an action potential remains the same throughout the length of the axon.
**Toilet flushing example
The idea that either the neuron fires or it does not- no part way firing.
Like a gun

13. Steps of Action Potential
Dendrites receive neurotransmitter from another neuron across the synapse.
Reached its threshold- then fires based on the all-or-none response.
Opens up a portal in axon, and lets in positive ions (Sodium) which mix with negative ions (Potassium) that is already inside the axon (thus Neurons at rest have a slightly negative charge).
The mixing of + and – ions causes an electrical charge that opens up the next portal (letting in more K) while closing the original portal.
Process continues down axon to the axon terminal.
Terminal buttons turns electrical charge into chemical (neurotransmitter) and shoots message to next neuron across the synapse.

14. Synapse
Synapse [SIN-aps] a junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. This tiny gap is called the synaptic gap or cleft.
Preview Question 3: How do nerve cells communicate? Synapse was coined by Lord Sherrington ( ) who inferred it through behavioral experiments. Cajal ( ) described the synapse based on his anatomical studies of the brain.

15. Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters (chemicals) released from the sending neuron travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it to generate an action potential.

16. Reuptake
Neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the sending neurons through the process of reuptake. This process applies the brakes on neurotransmitter action.

17. How Neurotransmitters Influence Us
Serotonin pathways are involved with mood regulation.
Preview Question 4: How do neurotransmitters influence human behavior?
From Mapping the Mind, Rita Carter, © 1989 University of California Press

18. Dopamine Pathways
Dopamine pathways are involved with diseases such as schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease.
From Mapping the Mind, Rita Carter, © 1989 University of California Press

19. Neurotransmitters

20. Lock & Key Mechanism
Neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of the receiving neuron in a key-lock mechanism.

21. Agonists-a drug that boosts the effects of a neurotransmitter

22. Antagonists-drug that blocks the effect of a neurotransmitter

23. Plasticity
Neurons have the ability to change—to make new connections and strengthen old ones.
They can adapt/modify as a result of experience.
Ex. Violin player—motor area linked to fingers in left had becomes bigger with experience.

24. Glial Cells A support group for neurons.
They provide the structural support for the neurons.
They also help in forming new synapses
Found to be crucial to learning
They are what form the myelin sheath.

25. Nervous System Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS)
Preview Question 5: What are the major divisions of the nervous system, and what are their basic functions?

26. The Nervous System
Nervous System: Consists of all the nerve cells. It is the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication system.
2 Major Parts
Central Nervous System (CNS): the brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

27. The Nervous System

28. Peripheral Nervous System
Its like the “pick up and delivery” service for the Central Nervous System. It connects it with the rest of the body through bundles of sensory/motor nerves.

29. The Nerves
Nerves consist of neural “cables” containing many axons. They are part of the peripheral nervous system and connect muscles, glands, and sense organs to the central nervous system.

30. TWO PARTS TO THE PNS
Somatic Nervous System: The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles.
Afferent: sensory component
Efferent: Motor component
Autonomic Nervous System: Part of the PNS that controls the glands and other muscles. Fight/flight—self-regulating

31. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Sympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. AROUSES
Parasympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy. CALMS
Opponent Process System: they work in opposition create homeostasis.

32. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Sympathetic NS “Arouses”
(fight-or-flight)
Parasympathetic NS “Calms”
(rest and digest)

33. Central Nervous System
The Brain and Neural Networks:
Interconnected neurons form networks in the brain. Theses networks are complex and modify with growth and experience.
Complex Neural Network

34. Central Nervous System
The Spinal Cord and Reflexes
Simple Reflex

35. The Endocrine System
The Endocrine System is the body’s “slow” chemical communication system. Communication is carried out by hormones synthesized by a set of glands.
Preview Question 6: How does the endocrine system-the body’s slower information system-transmit information?

36. Hormones
Hormones are chemicals synthesized by the endocrine glands that are secreted in the bloodstream. Hormones affect the brain and many other tissues of the body.
These hormones are the same chemical messengers that are used in the nervous system (neurotransmitters)
For example, epinephrine (adrenaline) increases heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and feelings of excitement during emergency situations. Fight or flight!

37. Pituitary Gland
Is called the “master gland.” The anterior pituitary lobe releases hormones that regulate other glands. The posterior lobe regulates water and salt balance. It is at the base of your brain.
HoweHo

38. Pituitary Gland
Although it is the “master gland” of the endocrine system, it is really only a mid-level manager.
It takes its orders from the brain…in particular the Hypothalamus. More on this soon 

39. Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands
Regulate metabolic and calcium rate.

40. Adrenal Glands
Adrenal glands consist of the adrenal medulla and the cortex. The medulla secretes hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) during stressful and emotional situations, while the adrenal cortex regulates salt and carbohydrate metabolism.

41. Gonads
Sex glands are located in different places in men and women. They regulate bodily development and maintain reproductive organs in adults.