1. Dec. 8, Weihua Gan

2. Contents Chapter1 Introduction to Management and Organization
Chapter2 Management Yesterday and Today
Chapter3 Management Decision Making
Chapter4 The Planning Function
Chapter5 The Organizing Function
Chapter6 Managerial Communication
Chapter7 The Leading Function: Motivation and Leadership
Chapter9 The Controlling Function

3. The Leading Function: Motivation and Leadership
Chapter 7

4. Terms to Know Motivation Leader Maslow’s hierarchy Leadership
Theory X and Theory Y
Motivation-hygiene theory
Equity theory
Expectancy theory
Leader
Leadership
Traits theory
Nature
Nurture
Managerial grid
Fiedler model

5. L E A R N I N G O U T L I N E
Define motivation.
Describe Early Theories of Motivation.
Describe Contemporary Theories of Motivation.
Contrast leaders and managers.
Describe Early Leadership Theories.
Describe situational leadership theory.

6. What Is Motivation? Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.
Effort: a measure of intensity or drive.
Direction: toward organizational goals
Need: personalized reason to exert effort
Motivation works best when individual needs are compatible with organizational goals.

7. The Motivation Process

8. What Is Motivation? Need Early Theories of Motivation
An internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive.
An unsatisfied need creates tension which is reduced by an individual’s efforts to satisfy the need.
Early Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
MacGregor’s Theories X and Y
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

9. Early Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Needs were categorized as five levels of lower- to higher-order needs.
Individuals must satisfy lower-order needs before they can satisfy higher order needs.
Satisfied needs will no longer motivate.
Motivating a person depends on knowing at what level that person is on the hierarchy.
Hierarchy of needs
Lower-order (external): physiological, safety
Higher-order (internal): social, esteem, self-actualization

10. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

11. Early Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X
Assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, avoid responsibility, and require close supervision.
Theory Y
Assumes that workers can exercise self-direction, desire responsibility, and like to work.
Motivation is maximized by participative decision making, interesting jobs, and good group relations.

12. Early Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by different factors.
Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors that create job dissatisfaction.
Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that create job satisfaction.
Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does not result in increased performance.
The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather no satisfaction.

13. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

14. Contrasting Views of Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction

15. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Three-Needs Theory
Goal-Setting Theory
Reinforcement Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory

16. Motivation and Needs Three-Needs Theory
There are three major acquired needs that are major motives in work.
Need for achievement (nAch)
The drive to excel and succeed
Need for power (nPow)
The need to influence the behavior of others
Need of affiliation (nAff)
The desire for interpersonal relationships

17. Examples of Pictures Used for Assessing Levels of nAch, nAff, and nPow

18. Motivation and Goals Goal-Setting Theory
Proposes that setting goals that are accepted, specific, and challenging yet achievable will result in higher performance than having no or easy goals.
Benefits of Participation in Goal-Setting
Increases the acceptance of goals.
Fosters commitment to difficult, public goals.
Provides for self-feedback (internal locus of control) that guides behavior and motivates performance (self-efficacy).

19. Goal-Setting Theory

20. Motivation and Behavior
Reinforcement Theory
Assumes that a desired behavior is a function of its consequences, is externally caused, and if reinforced, is likely to be repeated.
Positive reinforcement is preferred for its long-term effects on performance
Ignoring undesired behavior is better than punishment which may create additional dysfunctional behaviors.

21. Motivation and Perception
Equity Theory
Proposes that employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put in (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others.
If the ratios are perceived as equal then a state of equity (fairness) exists.
If the ratios are perceived as unequal, inequity exists and the person feels under- or over-rewarded.
When inequities occur, employees will attempt to do something to rebalance the ratios (seek justice).

22. Motivation and Perception (cont’d)
Equity Theory (cont’d)
Employee responses to perceived inequities:
Distort own or others’ ratios.
Induce others to change their own inputs or outcomes.
Change own inputs (increase or decrease efforts) or outcomes (seek greater rewards).
Choose a different comparison (referent) other (person, systems, or self).
Quit their job.
Employees are concerned with both the absolute and relative nature of organizational rewards.

23. Equity Theory

24. Motivation and Perception (cont’d)
Equity Theory (cont’d)
Distributive justice
The perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals (i.e., who received what).
Influences an employee’s satisfaction.
Distributive
The perceived fairness of the process use to determine the distribution of rewards (i.e., how who received what).
Affects an employee’s organizational commitment.

25. Motivation, Perception, and Behavior
Expectancy Theory
States that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
Key to the theory is understanding and managing employee goals and the linkages among and between effort, performance and rewards.
Effort: employee abilities and training/development
Performance: valid appraisal systems
Rewards (goals): understanding employee needs

26. Simplified Expectancy Model

27. Motivation, Perception, and Behavior (cont’d)
Expectancy Relationships
Expectancy (effort-performance linkage)
The perceived probability that an individual’s effort will result in a certain level of performance.
Instrumentality
The perception that a particular level of performance will result in the attaining a desired outcome (reward).
Valence
The attractiveness/importance of the performance reward (outcome) to the individual.

28. Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation

29. From Theory to Practice: Guidelines for Motivating Employees
Recognize individual differences
Match people to jobs
Use goals
Ensure that goals are perceived as attainable
Individualize rewards
Link rewards to performance
Check the system for equity
Use recognition
Don’t ignore money

30. Managers Versus Leaders
Are appointed to their position.
Can influence people only to the extent of the formal authority of their position.
Do not necessarily have the skills and capabilities to be leaders.
Leaders
Are appointed or emerge from within a work group.
Can influence other people and have managerial authority.
Do not necessarily have the skills and capabilities to be managers.
Leadership is the process of influencing a group toward the achievement of goals.

31. Early Leadership Theories
Trait Theories (1920s-30s)
Research focused on identifying personal characteristics that differentiated leaders from nonleaders was unsuccessful.
Later research on the leadership process identified seven traits associated with successful leadership:
Drive,
the desire to lead,
honesty and integrity,
self-confidence,
intelligence,
job-relevant knowledge,
and extraversion(外向性).

32. Early Leadership Theories (cont’d)
Behavioral Theories
University of Iowa Studies (Kurt Lewin)
Identified three leadership styles:
Autocratic style（独裁式）: centralized authority, low participation
Democratic style（民主式）: involvement, high participation, feedback
Laissez faire style（放任式）: hands-off management
Research findings: mixed results
No specific style was consistently better for producing better performance
Employees were more satisfied under a democratic leader than an autocratic leader.

33. Early Leadership Theories (cont’d)
Behavioral Theories (cont’d)
Ohio State Studies
Identified two dimensions of leader behavior
Initiating structure: the role of the leader in defining his or her role and the roles of group members
Consideration: the leader’s mutual trust and respect for group members’ ideas and feelings.
Research findings: mixed results
High-high leaders generally, but not always, achieved high group task performance and satisfaction.
Evidence indicated that situational factors appeared to strongly influence leadership effectiveness.

34. Early Leadership Theories (cont’d)
Behavioral Theories (cont’d)
University of Michigan Studies
Identified two dimensions of leader behavior
Employee oriented: emphasizing personal relationships
Production oriented: emphasizing task accomplishment
Research findings:
Leaders who are employee oriented are strongly associated with high group productivity and high job satisfaction.

35. The Managerial Grid Managerial Grid
Appraises leadership styles using two dimensions:
Concern for people
Concern for production
Places managerial styles in five categories:
Impoverished （无力的）management
Task management
Middle-of-the-road management
Country club management
Team management

36. The Managerial Grid Exhibit
Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from “Breakthrough in Organization Development” by Robert R. Blake, Jane S. Mouton, Louis B. Barnes, and Larry E. Greiner, November–December 1964, p Copyright © 1964 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. All rights reserved.
Exhibit

37. Contingency Theories of Leadership
The Fiedler Model (cont’d)
Proposes that effective group performance depends upon the proper match between the leader’s style of interacting with followers and the degree to which the situation allows the leader to control and influence.
Assumptions:
A certain leadership style should be most effective in different types of situations.
Leaders do not readily change leadership styles.
Matching the leader to the situation or changing the situation to make it favorable to the leader is required.

38. Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
The Fiedler Model (cont’d)
Least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire
Determines leadership style by measuring responses to 18 pairs of contrasting adjectives.
High score: a relationship-oriented leadership style
Low score: a task-oriented leadership style
Situational factors in matching leader to the situation:
Leader-member relations
Task structure
Position power

39. Findings of the Fiedler Model
Exhibit

40. Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
Argues that successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style which is contingent on the level of the followers’ readiness.
Acceptance: leadership effectiveness depends on whether followers accept or reject a leader.
Readiness: the extent to which followers have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task.
Leaders must relinquish(放弃) control over and contact with followers as they become more competent.

41. Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
Creates four specific leadership styles incorporating Fiedler’s two leadership dimensions:
Telling: high task-low relationship leadership
Selling: high task-high relationship leadership
Participating: low task-high relationship leadership
Delegating: low task-low relationship leadership

42. Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
Posits four stages follower readiness:
R1: followers are unable and unwilling
R2: followers are unable but willing
R3: followers are able but unwilling
R4: followers are able and willing

43. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model
Source: Reprinted with permission from the Center for Leadership Studies. Situational Leadership® is a registered trademark of the Center for Leadership Studies. Escondido, California. All rights reserved.
Exhibit

44. Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
Leader Participation Model (Vroom and Yetton)
Posits that leader behavior must be adjusted to reflect the task structure—whether it is routine, nonroutine, or in between—based on a sequential set of rules (contingencies) for determining the form and amount of follower participation in decision making in a given situation.

45. Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
Leader Participation Model Contingencies:
Decision significance
Importance of commitment
Leader expertise
Likelihood of commitment
Group support
Group expertise
Team competence

46. Leadership Styles: Vroom Leader Participation Model
Decide: Leader makes the decision alone and either announces or sells it to group.
Consult Individually: Leader presents the problem to group members individually, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision.
Consult Group: Leader presents the problem to group members in a meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision.
Facilitate: Leader presents the problem to the group in a meeting and, acting as facilitator, defines the problem and the boundaries within which a decision must be made.
Delegate: Leader permits the group to make the decision within prescribed limits.
Exhibit

47. Leadership Issues in the 21st Century
Managing Power
Legitimate （合法的） power
The power a leader has as a result of his or her position.
Coercive（强制的）power
The power a leader has to punish or control.
Reward （酬劳）power
The power to give positive benefits or rewards.
Expert （专长）power
The influence a leader can exert as a result of his or her expertise, skills, or knowledge.
Referent（指示的） power
The power of a leader that arise because of a person’s desirable resources or admired personal traits.

48. Q&A
Case study: 现金被盗
Case study: 闲可钓鱼与无暇吃鱼

49. Thanks!
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