1. Building Construction 12
Dr Nabil El-Sawalhi
Associate professor
Engineering Projects Management

2. STONES Types of building stone
Building stone is obtained by taking rock from the earth and reducing it to the required shapes and sizes for construction.
Building Stone can be divided into three groups on the basis of geologic origin:
1. Igneous
Igneous stone is the result of solidification from molten state

3. 2. Sedimentary
Sedimentary stone is composed of sand, clay, and other substances derived from the breaking down of existent stone into small particles which are taken up and carried by water and then settled from the water into beds.
These particles, together with the remains of plants, are formed into stone by mechanical pressure or are cemented together by chemical or organic action
3. Metamorphic
Metamorphic stone is the ultimate product from both igneous and sedimentary stone formed either by pressure , heat, or moisture, or various combustion

4. Building stones may be classified as follows:
Granite group
Limestone group
Marble group
Sandstone and quartzite group
Slate (الاردواز)

5. GRANITE OR GRANITE GROUP
Granite is an igneous rock .
It is the strongest and densest of building stones.
It weathers far more slowly than other stones and takes an extremely good polish.
It is used in the exterior cladding of significant buildings.
Granite contains 25% to 40% quartz and 3% to 10% mica; the remainder (50% or more) is feldspar.
Quartz is the strongest and most durable of the three minerals. Therefore, a greater amount of quartz gives a stronger and harder granite that is more difficult to process—sawing, profiling, and grinding.

6. LIMESTONE
Limestone is a sedimentary rock, consisting primarily of the carbonates of calcium and magnesium, with small amounts of clay, sand, and organic material, such as seashells and other fossils.
Limestone consisting of approximately 95% calcium carbonate and 5% impurities is called calcite limestone. That consisting of 60% to 80% calcium carbonate and 20% to 40% magnesium carbonate is called dolomitic limestone. Dolomitic limestone is generally stronger than calcite limestone.

7. MARBLE
Geologically, marble is different from limestone because it is a metamorphic rock .
Chemically, however, marble is similar to limestone. In fact, marble is limestone, which under centuries of high pressure and heat in the earth’s crust morphed from a sedimentary rock to a metamorphic rock.
Because of the pressure and heat, marble is stronger and denser than the original limestone but weaker than granite.
Like granite, it takes a good polish. Denser varieties of limestone that accept polish are sold (and used) commercially as marble. Marbles vary in surface appearance, which can be without patterns or with patterns— veiny, or mottled, or both, Figure

9. SANDSTONE
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock formed by layers of sand (quartz) particles with oxides of calcium, silicon, and iron as cementing agents.
If the cementing agent consists primarily of the oxide of silicon, sandstone is light in color and strong.
If cemented by iron oxide, the sandstone is brown or red in color and softer.
Sandstone that has a large amount of calcium oxide as cement is relatively more vulnerable to disintegration.

10. SLATE
Slate is a metamorphic rock formed by the morphosis of clay and mica sediments. Slate has a non-granular, smooth texture and is characterized by distinct cleavage planes that permit easy splitting in slabs as thin as 1 4 in.
That is why slate is used as roofing and flooring material.
It is available in various colors, ranging from black to pink and light green.

12. Textures & Colors of stone
Palestine boasts a wide variety of colors and types of stone.
The colors of stone range from those with golden tones to those with beige and pink and beige and gray or darker beige, varying according to geographical area.
Most types of stone product meet international standards and specifications .
Different types of stone and marble are distributed across the West Bank. Stones are usually described in terms of their location for example, 'Jemmaeen stone', 'Yata stone', 'Bani Naim stone' and so on.

13. A narrower categorization of stone is based not only on location, but also on stone type, shape and color.
For example, the main types of stone are: Injasah, Jarra'ah, al-Shyoukh, Tafouh, Sanout, Qabatya and Yatta (based on location).
Each one of these has different categories - according to the layer of earth from which it is extracted - and hence, different uses.

15. Classification of Stones
A broader classification of stones describes different types as:
polished stone,
rough stone,
bush light chiseled stone and others.
All types of finished stone are marketed in the West Bank, particularly rough stone. The stone is primarily used in construction and it is required by municipality law to use it in most areas of the West Bank.
The white stone of Injasa , Aseerah, Sannout, and Shyoukh is the most popular type of stone in the West Bank, and thus is the most expensive local stone.

19. FINISHES ON STONE SLABS AND PANELS
The surfaces of stone slabs and panels can be finished in several ways.
The finish not only affects the surface appearance of the stone but also its durability. A honed or polished finish is generally more durable because it facilitates the drainage of water from the surface.
Sawn finish: If the stone is not finished beyond sawing, the surface is called a sawn finish . A sawn finish has visible saw marks.
Honed finish: When a sawn finish is ground smooth with an abrasive material, a honed finish is obtained.
Honing requires repeated grinding with increasingly fine abrasives. Water is used continuously during the honing process to control dust.

21. Polished finish: Conceptually, there is no difference between a honed and a polished finish.
A honed finish is smooth but with a matt appearance. A polished finish is obtained by grinding the stone surface beyond the honed finish with finer abrasives and finally buffing it with felt until the surface develops a sheen.
A polished finish brings out the color of stone to its fullest extent by reflecting light like a mirror.
The difference in color of a rough and a polished finish on the same stone is easily noticeable, often significant.
A clear penetrating sealer that adds to the sheen is generally applied to the surface of a polished stone

22. Specifications and Uses Major Stone Types in Palestinian Lands

23. Thermal Properties of Major types of Stones Used in West Bank and Gaza

24. Stone Fixing
In contemporary buildings, natural stone is generally used as thin slabs. For exterior or interior wall cladding, slabs vary in thickness from 10cm to 5cm.
For flooring, slab thickness can be as low as cm .
The thinner the stone, the smaller the size of the slab in which it is available. A slab thickness of less than cm is referred to as a tile in the stone industry. Stones used in exterior-wall veneers are generally 7.5 to 10 cm. thick

29. Fixing of Stone Facings
The stone facings shall be wetted before laying. While applying mortar for fixing the facings in position, no chips or fillings of any sort shall be used. The facings may be fixed according to the different types of arrangements (see 5.4.1) and shown in Fig In case of load bearing cramps (designed to carry the load), the holes in the backing shall beenlrged to improve the anchorage of the cramp. During fixing, cramps shall not be bent, unless provided for in the design.

30. Use of stone dowels and metal pins for fixing veneering to wall are shown in Fig Cramps illustrated in Fig. 10SA shall not be used for load bearing purposes. Details of copper pin dowel is shown in Fig. 10.5, details of metal and stone cramps are as in Fig

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