1. Jeremy Sutton PhD – Human Endurance
Does Mental Toughness influence the ability to maximise performance in
Ultra Endurance runners?
Jeremy Sutton PhD – Human Endurance
Dr Gavin Breslin
Professor Gareth Davison
Dr Roddy Large

2. Evolution of Endurance?
125,000 YA - Humans leave Africa
200,000 YA - Homo Sapiens evolves
1.8 MYA - Home erectus leaves Africa
2 MYA - Homo erectus
4 MYA - Australopithecus
8-6 MYA - Last common ancestor .
Large, complex brain, requiring 20% energy
Kill prey in absence of speed or weapons
Persistence hunting
Fossil evidence suggests:
Left the forests
Bipedialism
Hunter-gatherer
Plantar Arch (energy storage/shock absorption)
Long Achilles tendon (energy storage/shock absorption)
Enlarged gluteus maximus (stabilization)
Reduced body hair, narrow elongated body form, increased number of sweat glands (heat dissipation and management)
Endurance, according to Bramble & Lieberman (2014), is likely have a very long provenance and relies on some key physiological adaptations.
4 million years ago, Australopithecus, according to fossil evidence, left the receding rainforests for the open savannah and developed adaptations to walk upright on two legs that would facilitate a hunter-gatherer life style
Homo Erectus arrived some two million years ago and is usually credited with the development of stone tools, leaving Africa, and exhibiting a number of physiological adaptions that may well have appeared due to the demands posed by endurance running:
Plantar Arch/ Long Achilles tendon (energy storage/shock absorption)
Enlarged gluteus maximus (stabilization)
Reduced body hair, narrow elongated body form, increased number of sweat glands (heat dissipation and management)
Homo Sapiens emerged only 200 thousand years ago:
Our highly developed brain requires over 20% of the bodies energy. There we re no bows/arrows and spears (until some 40 thousand years ago), and in the absence of speed it has been suggested that we killed using our endurance.
Persistence hunting involving running to exhaustion and death, over a number of miles, animals such as antelope, to provide a consistent source of protein. .
Our Physiology and even our Psychology may have been shaped for, and by, Endurance Running 2

3. What do we now define as endurance running?
Ultra marathons:
In excess of marathon distance i.e miles
Common distances 50km, 50 miles, 100km, 100 miles
What do we now define as endurance running?
“Struggling and suffering are the essence of a life worth living. If you're not pushing yourself beyond the comfort zone, if you're not demanding more from yourself - expanding and learning as you go - you're choosing a numb existence. You're denying yourself an extraordinary trip.”
Dean Karnazes, Ultrarunner
Endurance for the modern human, tends to take the form of sport.
There are numerous forms of endurance races, from cycling events to triathlons, but we have chosen to focus on ultra marathons, largely because of the growing number of events and increasing numbers of participants.
Such events tend to begin where marathons finish - including 50km, 50 miles, 100km, 100 miles, but can also cover much greater distances.
@jeremypsutton

4. 42 fells in lake district – 66 miles 24 hour period
“I can’t do another 15/16 hours.’ I think having a little cry probably helped. I got back out of the van more focused, determined and positive.”
Bob Graham Round:
42 fells in lake district – 66 miles
24 hour period
Indeed, one of many such longer events, is known as the Bob Graham round.
A standard Bob Graham Round involves a 66-mile circuit of 42 summits including 27,000ft of elevation gain, to be completed in less than 24 hours, in the English Lake district
In May of this year, Nicky Spinks completed the challenge twice, one after the other and became the fastest person to run a Double Bob Graham Round. Nicky is a 49-year-old woman and a cancer-survivor and completed the 54,000ft of ascent, in a time of 45 hours and 30 minutes.
She took over an hour off the previous record set in 1979
With more that 15 hours to run she stepped into the support van, and said, in her words ‘I can’t do this,’ I think having a little cry probably helped. I got back out of the van more focused, determined and positive.
DOUBLE Bob Graham Round
New record set by Nicky Spinks
49 year old woman – 10 years post cancer diagnosis
45 hours to run 132 ’fell’ miles – 54,000 feet of ascent

5. Endurance and Psychology
Human endurance “is defined as the [individual’s] capacity to sustain a given power for the longest time possible […]”. Billat & Koralsztein (1999)
Physical homogeneous athletes
Psychological factors, including mental toughness, have an influence on endurance performance, with the potential to reduce, or remove, the perception of pain, Crust & Clough (2005)
The ability to perform a physical challenge, over a prolonged period of time, requiring physical and mental fortitude, often resulting in feelings of discomfort and hardship.
Billat & Koralsztein (1999) defines human endurance “ as the individual’s capacity to sustain a given power for the longest time possible […]”.
Endurance, like all human behaviour, is likely to have a strong psychological element.
Indeed, modern athletes, with advanced training regimes, facilities and equipment are likely to be homogeneous physiologically with success reliant on psychological factors
The results of muscular endurance testing by Crust & Clough (2005) indicate psychological factors, including mental toughness, as having an influence on endurance performance, with the potential to reduce, or remove, the perception of pain.
Human endurance might be described as the ability to perform a physical challenge, over a prolonged period of time, requiring physical and mental fortitude, and often resulting in feelings of discomfort or hardship. 5

6. Statement of the Problem
Limited understanding of the motivations and mindset of ultra endurance athletes Wortley et al (2012)
Psychological moderators in endurance events may enable coaches and sports scientists to provide improved support for endurance athletes
Mostly qualitative in nature and using elite athletes – not measuring both psychological and physiological factors
According to Wortley et al (2012) health professionals frequently fail to understand the reasons for the motivation, and the mindset, of ultra-endurance competitors, and their need to explore the limits of human endurance.
A better understanding of psychological moderators, such as mental toughness, personality, motivation, the ability to handle pain and stress, and genetic predispositions in endurance events may enable coaches and sports scientists to provide improved support for the amateur and professional athlete at increasing race distances.
Much of the focus has been qualitative in nature and has concentrated on elite athletes, leaving a gap in the knowledge specifically regarding quantitative research into non-elite athletes, and conjointly the psychological, and the physiological factors that predict performance in ultra-endurance athletes in both training, and during race settings.
@jeremypsutton 6

7. Research Aims
To better under endurance athletes through quantitative research, performed to identify the psychological and physiological factors that influence their success.
The aim to answer some, or all of the following questions:
What are the psychological and physiological factors that identify ultra- endurance runners?
What is the relationship between psychological factors and performance success in ultra-endurance runners?
What psychological and physiological factors could be developed in ultra-endurance runners to maximise the likelihood of success in ultra- endurance events and what support may be offered by the sports professional?
@jeremypsutton 7

8. Mental Toughness
Important construct for performance excellence (Gucciardi et 2013)
‘natural, and a developed edge’ (Jones, Hanton, Connaughton, 2002)
4 C’s (Crust and Clough 2005), in which MT individuals are said to:
View negative experiences as challenges
Influential and control negative life experiences
Deeply involved and committed to achieving goals
Confident in abilities to deal/overcome
MTQ48 – Crust et al. (2002)
Researchers have recognised mental toughness as one of the most important psychological constructs for performance excellence in sport (Gucciardi and Gordon, 2013)
Jones and colleagues findings identified mental toughness as being both a natural and a developed psychological edge over competitors, enabling a more consistent ability to stay focused and in control of performance whilst under pressure, and being better able to cope with training and the demands of competition.
The model developed by Crust et al, (2005) defined mental toughness as a trait-like dimension of personality, made up of four psychological attributes, control, commitment, challenge and confidence (4Cs):
Mental Toughness Questionnaire (MTQ48) Crust et al. (2002) subsequently developed showed a positive correlation between mental toughness and physical endurance.

9. Personality & Motivation
Big 5 personality dimensions (Kaiser et al, 2012)
O,C,E,A,N
‘different and diverse systems of personality’
Influence ability to cope (Allen et al, 2011) but limited knowledge on coping effectiveness
Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan, 2000) the amount by which individuals “are able to satisfy their basic psychological needs as they pursue and attain their valued outcomes”
Research has identified that motivation tends to be high when basic psychological needs are met (Deci & Ryan, 2008) and autonomous motivation often leads to improved performance.
The Big 5 personality dimensions: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness & neuroticism provide common framework for investigating ‘different & diverse systems of personality’ (Kaiser, Polman & Nicholls, 12),
Research indicates that higher-order personality dimensions influence an athlete’s ability to cope with pressure (Allen, Greenless and Jones, 2011).
Knowledge is still very limited regarding effect personality has on appraisal , coping effective in sport& ability to handle stress without a related performance degradation.
The SDT (Deci & Ryan, 2000) provides a framework to study human motivation of ultra-endurance race participants, and is based on the amount by which individuals “are able to satisfy their basic psychological needs as they pursue and attain their valued outcomes” (p227).
Research has identified motivation tends to be high when basic psychological needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness are met & autonomous motivation often leads to improved performance.

10. Genetics
Horsburgh et al (2009) mental toughness, like other personality characteristics are heritable (52%)
Golby and Sheard (2006) also suggested that mental toughness is partially genetically determined
Genes linked to the sports psychology:
ACE gene – endurance (Montgomery 1998)
5HTT - ability to control emotion
BDNF - perceived effort during aerobic activity. (Lippi et al 2009)
D4DR - involved in motivation and arousal. (Eichhammer at al 2005)
According to Horsburgh et al (2009) mental toughness, like other personality characteristics is heritable (52%), including subscales of control, commitment, challenge and concentration:
Golby and Sheard (2006) also suggested that mental toughness is partially genetically determined
Research has explored a number of genes that influence an athlete’s capacity to perform well in sport.
According to research, the following are a small sample of genes that may affect the physiological and the psychological background that impact training and competition in endurance sports:
ACE gene – endurance (Montgomery 1998)
5HTT - may be linked with the ability to control emotion,
BDNF - may directly impact perceived effort during aerobic activity.
D4DR - impacts the dopaminergic system, involved in motivation risk-taking behaviour

11. Research Studies Lab study 1 Field study 1
Part of a larger piece of quantitative research identifying performance factors:
Lab study 1
Field study 1
Ultra runners and Non-Ultra runners:
Physiology
V02 peak scores
ACE gene allele
Psychology
Mental toughness
Big 5 personality dimensions
Ultra runners in one ultra marathon:
Physiology
Stress hormones – cortisol/testosterone
Psychology
Mental toughness
Big 5 personality dimensions
Motivation
Other
Race placing
The following three studies form a piece of research to examine psychological and physiological factors that influence performance in ultra-endurance runners.
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Lab Study 1
The aims of the initial lab study were to contribute to current understanding of endurance athletes by comparing ultra-endurance runners with non ultra-endurance runners by measuring V02 peak scores, mental toughness, Big 5 personality dimensions and, one of the key endurance genes, the ACE gene allele.
Field Study
The aim of the follow-on, field-based study, was to test participants in an ultra marathon race, and measure mental toughness, personality traits, motivation, and the stress hormones, cortisol and testosterone and correlate against the race placings upon successful completion of the ultra endurance race.

12. Research Studies Lab study 2 – in progress
Second lab study, aiming to cover all previous measures, and compare across three groups:
Lab study 2 – in progress
Ultra runners/Aerobic/ Sedentary:
Physiology
V02 max/ Anaerobic threshold
5HTT, BDNF, D4DR
Cortisol
Pain – threshold / Tolerance
Psychology
Mental toughness
Big 5 personality dimensions
Motivation
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Lab Study 2
In the second lab-based study, the aim was to further investigate factors that influence performance in ‘trained’ ultra endurance runners, measuring: mental toughness; personality traits; motivation; attentional focus; cortisol; pain; genes 5HTT, BDNF and D4DR, identified as potentially affecting emotional control, perceived effort, and motivation that may impact performance in athletes; and V02 peak, as a measure of maximal aerobic capacity.
These measures will be contrasted with randomly selected participants that meet the criteria for each of the groups, sedentary, and untrained, and ensuring a comparable mean group age. The ‘endurance trained group’ will be currently training for an event in the next three months, have taken part in in an ultra-endurance event in the last eight months, and currently averaging more than four hours of cardiovascular exercise per week. The ‘active’ group will contain participants who average at least 30 minutes of moderate exercise on most, if not all days, of the week, and have not taken part or planning to take part in an ultra-endurance event. The ‘sedentary group’ will contain only participants that take part in no leisure time physical activity per week, and have not taken part or planning to take part in an ultra-endurance event.

13. Results – Lab Study 1 Results – Lab study 1
No differences between ultra and non-ultra endurance runners:
Mental toughness
Personality scores
Presence of the ACE gene insertion allele
Statistically significant difference between ultra and non ultra group for VO2 peak (p < .05)
Correlations identified for ALL, between VO2 peak and mental toughness scores
SMTQ Control, Composite (p<.05)
MTQ Commitment (p <.05), Life control
Big 5 Conscientiousness (p <.05)
Correlations identified between and mental toughness scores
Big 5 conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion
Big 5 neuroticism (-VE)
Perhaps surprisingly the results of the comparison between ultra runners and non-ultra runners showed no differences in measures for:
Mental toughness
Personality scores
Presence of the ACE gene insertion allele
There was a statistically significant difference between groups for V02 peak, - ultra runners scored higher than non ultra runners – lab 1
When both groups were combined correlations were identified between VO2 peak and mental toughness scores and correlations identified between mental toughness and certain personality traits – such as positive links with conscientiousness, agreeableness and extraversion, and negative correlations with neuroticism – HORSBRUGH ??????

14. Results – Field Study Only age correlated with race position
Statistically significant increase in cortisol between pre and post race (p <.01)
Correlation between increase in stress hormone
MTQ48 – total, commitment, control – life, confidence
SDT – autonomy (intrinsic motivation)
SDT Impersonal – negative (beyond their control)
Only age correlated with race position
Correlations between SDT Autonomy
Big 5 - agreeableness, openness and
MTQ48 - challenge, commitment and confidence
In the second study cortisol increase, which may affect the ability to withstand physical stress and prolonged endurance, was correlated with motivation, as measured by the GCOS, in relation to the self determination theory:
Positive correlation, between stress hormone increase and feeling in control (MT), commited and confident
Positive correlation, between stress hormone increase and feeling autonomous (in terms of our motivation). *
A person high in autonomy orientation tends to display greater self-initiation, seek activities that are interesting and challenging, and take greater responsibility for his or her own behaviour.
Negative correlation, between stress increase and control **/impersonal (motivation)
Assesses the extent to which a person is oriented toward being controlled by rewards, deadlines, structures, ego-involvements, and the directives of others.
The extent to which a person believes that attaining desired outcomes is beyond his or her control and that achievement is largely a matter of luck or fate. 

15. Results – Lab Study 2 In progress………
Strong correlation between – amount of training and V02 max
Correlation between Pain Threshold and MT Control
Correlation between SDT autonomy and MT commitment/challenge
Found strong links between training and v02, and that ultra runners were defined by significantly more training
Further correlations were identified between mental toughness and pain threshold

16. Discussion
Ultra runners are not defined by Mental Toughness or individual personality dimensions
Increased endurance is a result of physiological adaptions following increased training regimes
Mental toughness linked to:
Maximising aerobic endurance
Pushing our bodies limits
Tolerating pain
The results from the two completed studies, plus initial results from the most recent lab study suggest
Mental toughness and individual personality dimensions do not appear to define the ultra runnner - counter to expectations based on Crust et al (2005), Jones et al (2002), that more accomplished athletes would have higher levels of MT. And the work of Kaiser et al (2012) that athletes would be recognisable by their personality traits.
Ultra-endurance runners are identifiable by higher levels of training and, as a result of physiological adaptations, correspondingly higher levels of aerobic fitness
Mental toughness, and conscientiousness, is linked with maximising aerobic endurance in both ultra runners and non ultra runners, and ability to tolerate pain.
For ultra runners in a race situation the more mentally tough runners were more able to push their bodies limits – though this did not necessarily result in improved race placings - other factors are likely to be involved

17. Discussion
Internal controlled motivation, would appear to increase our ability to push our body to the limits
External controlled motivation, or situations outside our control would appear to limit our ability to push our body
Links between autonomous motivation and mental toughness (Mahoney et al, 2014)
Autonomous motivation , which has been linked by Deci and Ryan to self actualisation, regulating the behaviour on the basis of interests and self endorsed values appears to enable the athlete to push their limits.
Impersonal motivation, seemed to reduce the ability to physically push the body to it limits, as evidenced by increases in stress hormones. External rewards, deadlines, structures, and the directives of others may reduce feeling of control and correspondingly motivation.
This study also identifies links between feelings of autonomy and mental toughness , in line with Mahoney, Ntoumanis, Mallett and Gucciardi (2014) who propose that SDT provides a good basis for understanding the motivational antecedents of Mental Toughness and suggests the terms striving, surviving and thriving to bridge the two.
+ve relationship for ultra runners v02 and conscientiousness – the latter may be a pre-requisite for determination and focus in training to reach higher levels of fitness, and racing to maximise results
+relationship for non ultra runners between v02 and control and commitment, may be a suggestion that such traits serve as an enabler for aerobically untrained participants to achieve optimal results possibly in an unfamiliar aerobic environment

18. Discussion
Mental toughness appears to be a key factor in maximising individual endurance limits
Optimum balance between mental toughness, personality and motivation
Further research
Cross disciplinary approach
Techniques that may provide support
The results from the two completed studies, plus initial results from the most recent lab study lend support for the general consensus of research that MT is a key factor in maximising individual endurance limits
However there may be an optimum balance between mental toughness, personality and motivation that enables an athlete to train and race to their physical limits
Further research both in the field, and in the laboratory, is required to:
Better understand the rewards, reasons and motivation behind successful ultra endurance event training and participation
Better appreciate the interaction of multiple factors across the models of personality, mental toughness and motivation, along with identifying the techniques that subsequently support the athlete and enable them to consistently compete to the best of their abilities.
Training techniques such as goal setting , coping mechanisms and visualisation may therefore provide useful mechanisms for ultra runners an non ultra runners alike to more easily achieve their potential

19. Thank you for your time Any questions? @jeremypsutton
Thank you for your time, I would be very interested in any thoughts/questions you may have
@jeremypsutton

20. Thank you for your time, I would be very interested in any thoughts/questions you may have
@jeremypsutton

21. Appendix MTQ48 eg. SDT eg. Big 5 eg.
Please indicate if any of these statements apply to you by placing a YES in the space provided (*past or current): - In discussions, I tend to back-down even when I feel strongly about something
Please indicate if any of these statements apply to you by placing a YES in the space provided (*past or current): - When I face setbacks I am often unable to persist with my goal
Please indicate if any of these statements apply to you by placing a YES in the space provided (*past or current): - I can usually adapt myself to challenges that come my way
I am someone who… - _____ Likes to cooperate with others
I am someone who… - _____ Is easily distracted
I am someone who… - _____ Is sophisticated in art, music, or literature
Your company has promoted you to a position in a city far from your present location. As you think<br>about the move you would probably: - Feel interested in the new challenge and a little nervous at the same time.
Your company has promoted you to a position in a city far from your present location. As you think<br>about the move you would probably: - Feel excited about the higher status and salary that is involved.
Your company has promoted you to a position in a city far from your present location. As you think<br>about the move you would probably: - Feel stressed and anxious about the upcoming changes.

22. Appendix Ben Smith – 401 marathons 284 marathons in 284 days
Hernia – stopped for 10 days
Raised over £250,00 for anti-bullying
3 months cool down of back to back half marathons followed by 10km’s
<stairs>
Indeed the Montane Spine race is 268 mile race, during the worst of winter along the length of the Penine way.
After coming second in 2015, Irelands own, Eoin Keith won this years race, in a new course record of 95 hours and 23 minutes.
Over the course of the 4 days Eoin slept for only 6 hours. 22

23. Research Scope @jeremypsutton
The approach of this research then is to examine, compare and contrast the:
in non-elite ultra-marathon runners, and non ultra-marathon runners
both competition, and controlled lab conditions,
Including psychological and physiological measures such as
V02 max, lactate inflection point, heart rate, stress hormones, selective genetic markers, including ACE gene, 5HTT (emotion control), BDNF (perceived effort), D4DR (motivation, arousal, risk taking);
perception of effort , perception of pain, mental toughness, personality, motivation and attentional focus.
Aiming to compare, not only between running groups, but also correlate across all participants the psychological and the physiological measures
@jeremypsutton 23