1. Congress “The Two Congresses” Legislation vs. representation
Member of a group
Individual representative of a constituency
Constituency service and responsiveness
Single-digit approval ratings for the institution
90%+ re-election rate for individual members
Deliberation vs. responsiveness
Trustee vs. delegate vs. politico modes

2. Bicameralism Why bicameralism? Connecticut Compromise
Smaller states wanted equal representation, as had been the case under the Articles of Confederation (New Jersey Plan)
Larger states wanted representation based on population – more people, more reps. (Virginia Plan)
The Compromise was one of each
Senate = equal representation of states
Wyoming has 2 Senators, California has 2
House = representation based on population
Wyoming has 1 Rep., California has 53

3. Bicameralism Representativeness of population (House)
Favors larger states
Representativeness of states as equal partners (Senate)
Favors smaller states
The founders feared tyranny of government, but they also feared mob rule
Both Houses have to pass the same bill in order for it to become law
This also serves the purpose of checks and balances/separation of powers – prevents the legislative branch from becoming too powerful in relation to the other two

4. House vs. Senate Bicameralism Representatives of “the people” vs.
representatives of “the states”
Popular election vs. state legislative election (originally)
17th Amendment (1913) made Senators popularly elected
Two-year terms vs. six-year terms
Responsiveness vs. deliberation

5. BICAMERALISM
The Senate was supposed to be more “deliberative” and the House more responsive to public opinion
Senate: Six-year terms
Staggered terms mean that a popular uprising couldn’t throw out the entire Senate at once, promotes stability
House: Two-year terms
Smaller number of Senators gives each one more individual power and allows for unlimited debate (protection of minority rights)
The House is much more structured and runs according to majority rule

6. Staggered terms in the Senate
Connecticut: Class I and Class III
Chris Murphy 2012, 2018
Richard Blumenthal 2016, 2022
Virginia: Class I and Class II
Tim Kaine 2012, 2018
Mark Warner 2014, 2020
South Carolina: Class II and Class III
Lindsey Graham 2014, 2020
Tim Scott 2016, 2022

7. 2012 Murphy Kaine No election 2014 Warner Graham 2016 Blumenthal Scott
Connecticut
Virginia
South Carolina
2012
Murphy
Kaine
No election
2014
Warner
Graham
2016
Blumenthal
Scott
2018
2020
2022

8. Effect of Bicameralism on Representation
11 Largest states*
39 smallest states*
2010 total population:
175,547,114 (56.4%)
House seats: 250 (57.5%)
Senate seats: 22 (22%)
Electoral votes: 272 (50.6%)
* California, Texas, New York, Florida, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, North Carolina, Georgia, New Jersey.
2010 total population:
135,758,864
House seats: 185
Senate seats: 78
Electoral votes: 263
* Everyone else.

9. BICAMERALISM Senate: Minimum age of 30, citizen for 9 years
House: Minimum age of 25, citizen for 7 years
The Founders anticipated that the Senate would be the “elder statesmen” exercising greater judgment, while the House would be more responsive to the popular will
Latin “senex” = “old man”
This forms the root of both “Senate” and “senile.” Draw your own conclusions.

10. HOW REPRESENTATIVE IS CONGRESS?
Demographically – not very
Wealthier, older, better educated than the population as a whole
Whites are overrepresented and other racial groups are underrepresented
There are now over 100 women in Congress for the first time in history. This is a big deal. (Why?)
Why do we care what Congress “looks like”?
Descriptive representation vs. substantive representation

11. HOW REPRESENTATIVE IS CONGRESS?
To what extent does Congress accurately reflect the will of the people?
If a small, heavily Republican state like Wyoming has the same number of Senators as a large, heavily Democratic state like California, does this distort the popular will?
What about the House?
In some extreme cases, gerrymandering may cause the House to be unreflective of majority will