1. What general political trends were evident in the nations of western Europe in the last decade of the 19th century, and how did these trends differ from the policies pursued in Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia?
The National State

2. BRITAIN Reform Act of 1867: Suffrage Extended
William Gladstone and Reform Act of 1884
Redistribution Act of 1885: Reorganized the election boroughs
Salaries paid to House of Commons 1911: more people could run for office
Irish Problem: Irish agitate for home rule

3. FRANCE Universal male suffrage in 1871 elected monarchists
Radical republicans formed an independent government (the Commune)
Commune crushed by government troops
Establishment of the Third Republic 1875
Position of the Third Republic precarious because monarchists, Catholic clergy, and professional army officers were in opposition
Boulanger crisis strengthens republic

4. SPAIN 1875 Constitution establishes parliamentary government
Reform not easily accomplished because the Catholic Church, the large landowners, and the army remained tied to a conservative social order

5. ITALY Had pretensions of great power status
Internal weakness: sectional differences
Government unable to deal with problems because of corruption and changing government coalitions

6. GERMANY
Real political democracy fails to develop because of army and Bismarck
Army officers come from Junker class or upper middle class
Bismarck’s conservatism: attacks Catholic Church (Kulturkampf) and persecutes socialists

7. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Austrian constitution of 1867 establishes parliamentary system
Emperor Francis Joseph largely ignores ministerial responsibility and rules by decree when parliament is not in session
Nationalities problem of minorities worsens
Hungary attempts Magyarization

8. RUSSIA
Alexander III, : overturns reform and returns to repressive measures
Nicholas II, : believed in absolute rule