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Intelligence and learning

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1 Intelligence and learning
Introduction

2 Ask yourself: What is intelligence, i. e
Ask yourself: What is intelligence, i.e. what factors are indicators of this? Einstein said, "The true sign of intelligence is not knowledge but imagination." Socrates said, "I know that I am intelligent, because I know that I know nothing.” Results? On a sheet write – what is intelligence

3 Ask yourself: What do you think are the causal factors in intelligence?
Good food. Nice wine.

4 Ask yourself: What are multiple intelligences?
Emotional Academic

5 Lesson 3 Aims Understand and reproduce spearman Psychometric theory of intelligence. Understand and reproduce Thurstone Psychometric theory of intelligence. Understand and reproduce Vernon and. Cattell hierarchical Psychometric theory of intelligence. Discuss!

6 Spearman The first of the major psychometric theories was that of the British psychologist Charles E. Spearman, who published his first major article on intelligence in Spearman noticed what, at the turn of the century, seemed like a peculiar fact: People who did well on one mental ability test tended to do well on the others, and people who did not do well on one of them also tended not to do well on the others. Spearman devised a technique for statistical analysis, which he called factor analysis, that examines patterns of individual differences in test scores and is said to provide an analysis of the underlying sources of these individual differences. Spearman's factor analyses of test data suggested to him that just two kinds of factors underlie all individual differences in test scores. The first and more important factor Spearman labeled the "general factor," or g, which is said to pervade performance on all tasks requiring intelligence. In other words, regardless of the task, if it requires intelligence, it requires g. The second factor is specifically related to each particular test. But what, exactly, is g? After all, calling something a general factor is not the same as understanding what it is. Spearman did not know exactly what the general factor might be, but he proposed in 1927 that it might be something he labeled "mental energy."

7 Spearman notes People do well in one intelligence test do well in others. (vice versa) The general factor. Or G. If it requires intelligence it requires the general factor.

8 Thurstone The American psychologist L.L. Thurstone disagreed not only with Spearman's theory but also with his isolation of a single factor of general intelligence. Thurstone argued that the appearance of just a single factor was an artifact of the way Spearman did his factor analysis and that if the analysis were done in a different and more appropriate way, seven factors would appear, which Thurstone referred to as the "primary mental abilities." The seven primary mental abilities identified by Thurstone were verbal comprehension (as involved in the knowledge of vocabulary and in reading); verbal fluency (as involved in writing and in producing words); number (as involved in solving fairly simple numerical computation and arithmetical reasoning problems); spatial visualization (as involved in mentally visualizing and manipulating objects, as is required to fit a set of suitcases into an automobile trunk); inductive reasoning (as involved in completing a number series or in predicting the future based upon past experience); memory (as involved in remembering people's names or faces); and perceptual speed (as involved in rapidly proofreading to discover typographical errors in a typed text).

9 NotesThurstone: One general factor was not good enough and if the tests had been done differently then there would be 7 factors. Verbal comprehension Reasoning Perceptual speed Numerical ability Word fluency Associative memory Spatial visualization

10 Philip E. Vernon and Raymond B. Cattell
Canadian Philip E. Vernon and the American Raymond B. Cattell, suggested another possibility--that both were right in some sense. In the view of Vernon and Cattell, abilities are hierarchical. At the top of the hierarchy is g, or general ability. But below g in the hierarchy are successive levels of gradually narrowing abilities, ending with Spearman's specific abilities. Cattell, for example, suggested in a 1971 work that general ability can be subdivided into two further kinds of abilities, fluid and crystallized. Fluid abilities are the reasoning and problem-solving abilities measured by tests such as the analogies, classifications, and series completions described above. Crystallized abilities can be said to derive from fluid abilities and be viewed as their products, which would include vocabulary, general information, and knowledge about specific fields. John L. Horn, an American psychologist, suggested that crystallized ability more or less increases over the life span, whereas fluid ability increases in the earlier years and decreases in the later ones.

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12 Hierarchical notes Spearman then Thurstone then lots more
Crystallised and Fluid Fluid intelligence involves being able to think and reason abstractly and solve problems. This ability is considered independent of learning, experience, and education. Examples of the use of fluid intelligence include solving puzzles and coming up with problem-solving strategies. Fluid intelligence tends to decline during late adulthood. Crystallized intelligence involves knowledge that comes from prior learning and past experiences. Situations that require crystallized intelligence include reading comprehension and vocabulary exams. This type of intelligence is based upon facts and rooted in experiences. As we age and accumulate new knowledge and understanding, crystallized intelligence becomes stronger.This type of intelligence tends to increase with age.

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14 Discuss It had become apparent that there were serious problems with psychometric theories, not just individually but as a basic approach to the question. For one thing, the number of abilities seemed to be getting out of hand. A movement that had started by postulating one important ability had come, in one of its major manifestations, to postulating 150. Because parsimony is usually regarded as one of several desirable features of a scientific theory, this number caused some disturbance. For another thing, the psychometricians, as practitioners of factor analysis were called, didn't seem to have any strong scientific means of resolving their differences. Any method that could support so many theories seemed somewhat suspect, at least in the use to which it was being put. Most significant, however, was the seeming inability of psychometric theories to say anything substantial about the processes underlying intelligence. It is one thing to discuss "general ability" or "fluid ability," but quite another to describe just what is happening in people's minds when they are exercising the ability in question. The cognitive psychologists proposed a solution to these problems, which was to study directly the mental processes underlying intelligence and, perhaps, relate them to the factors of intelligence proposed by the psychometricians. So……… no explanation of intelligence

15 Psychometric Approach: Psychometric theories focus on quantifying intelligence and measuring IQ.
Intelligence tests have been developed to try to provide an accurate way of measuring intelligence. Well-known tests include the Stanford–Binet test, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, and the British Ability Scales. These tests are designed to measure several aspects of intelligence and so include mathematical items, vocabulary tests, problems based on analogies, and items relating to spatial ability. The standardised intelligence quotient (IQ) tests were introduced so that scores could be compared to those of others. These were tested on large representative samples to establish the reliability and validity of the measures. The intelligence test is devised so that the scores form a normal distribution, which means that the majority of the scores cluster around the mean. The distance from the mean is measured in standard deviations, 68% of the scores fall within one standard deviation of the mean, 95% fall within two standard deviations, and 99.73% are within three standard deviations. Intelligence tests are designed to produce a mean IQ of 100 and a standard deviation of about 16.

16 Structure of Intelligence: Factor Analysis
Factor analysis is a statistical technique used to assess how well factors correlate to help separate out different aspects of intelligence. If two items correlate highly with each other, those who perform well on one item tend to perform well on the other one. The key assumption is that two items correlating highly with each other assess the same factor of intelligence. Spearman (1923) suggested that there is a general factor of intelligence, which he called “g” because most of the items within an intelligence test correlate positively with each other. However, most of these positive correlations are fairly weak and so Spearman argued there are specific factors associated with each test. Thurstone also believed that intelligence was more specific than general. He identified seven factors of intelligence, which he termed primary mental abilities: inductive reasoning (forming generalisations from examples), verbal meaning, numerical ability, spatial ability, perceptual speed, memory, and verbal fluency.

17 Research evidence for the psychometric approach
The validity of intelligence tests can be checked by seeing if students with high IQs have a higher level of academic performance than those with low IQs. There is a positive correlation of about +.5 or +.6 between intelligence test score and academic performance (Mackintosh, 1998), indicating there is a moderately strong relationship between these two variables. Hunter (1986) found that IQ as assessed by intelligence tests correlated +.58 with work performance among individuals with high- complexity jobs (e.g. biologist; city circulation manager). The finding that IQ predicted job performance moderately well suggests that intelligence tests are at least reasonably valid.

18 EVALUATION OF THE PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH
The specific factors correlate. Thurstone’s specific approach to intelligence is challenged by the fact that all seven primary mental abilities correlate positively with each other and so can’t be regarded as completely independent factors. Factor analysis of Thurstone’s seven factors produces the general factor that he claimed wasn’t important! The hierarchical approach. According to this approach (e.g. Carroll, 1986,), a combination of Spearman’s and Thurstone’s approaches best accounts for the structure of human intelligence. This results in a three-level hierarchical approach. At the highest level is the general factor of intelligence originally identified by Spearman. At the intermediate level of the hierarchy are six or seven group factors as originally suggested by Thurstone, each more specific than the general factor. At the lowest level of the hierarchy, there are numerous specific factors (e.g. spelling ability). Culture bias. It has often been argued that most intelligence tests are biased in favour of white individuals. Williams (1972,) compared white and black children who were given the Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity (BITCH), which was designed for black Americans. White American children did no better than black American children on this test, and sometimes performed worse. This reveals the difficulty of testing IQ as the questions are biased to the dominant group, so intelligence tests are only directly applicable to the majority group of the culture in which they were devised. Therefore they may tell us relatively little about intelligence in other cultures or sub-cultures.

19 EVALUATION OF THE PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH
Strong research support. The factorial approach has produced reasonable agreement that intelligence has a hierarchical structure. There is also strong evidence for a general factor of intelligence. Descriptive rather than explanatory. The psychometric approach is descriptive rather than explanatory because it describes intelligence but does not explain how or why it has developed. It does not explain the influence of genetic and environmental factors in determining individual differences in intelligence and so offers no insight into the causes of intelligence. Reductionist. In seeking only to measure intelligence, the psychometric approach is very limited and so reductionist because it tells us little about the cognitive processes and mechanisms underlying intelligent behaviour. This limitation has been addressed by researchers adopting the information-processing approach. Emotional intelligence. Another way in which the psychometric approach is reductionist is that it only considers one type of intelligence. Social or emotional intelligence seems important, and yet is typically excluded from the hierarchical model

20 Extra for interest. The new statistical techniques developed by Thurstone provided the necessary tools for his most enduring contribution to psychology: The Theory of Primary Mental Abilities, a model of human intelligence that challenged Charles Spearman’s then-dominant paradigm of a unitary conception of intelligence. Spearman, using an earlier approach to factor analysis, found that scores on all mental tests (regardless of the domain or how it was tested) tend to load on one major factor. Spearman suggested that these disparate scores are fueled by a common metaphorical “pool” of mental energy. He named this pool the general factor, or g (Spearman, 1904). Thurstone argued that g was a statistical artifact resulting from the mathematical procedures used to study it. Using his new approach to factor analysis, Thurstone found that intelligent behavior does not arise from a general factor, but rather emerges from seven independent factors that he called primary abilities: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, number facility, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed (Thurstone, 1938). Furthermore, when Thurstone analyzed mental test data from samples comprised of people with similar overall IQ scores, he found that they had different profiles of primary mental abilities, further supporting his model and suggesting that his work had more clinical utility than Spearman’s unitary theory. However, when Thurstone administered his tests to an intellectually heterogeneous group of children, he failed to find that the seven primary abilities were entirely separate; rather he found evidence of g. Thurstone managed an elegant mathematical solution that resolved these apparently contradictory results, and the final version of his theory was a compromise that accounted for the presence of both a general factor and the seven specific abilities. This compromise helped lay the groundwork for future researchers who proposed hierarchical theories and theories of multiple intelligences (Ruzgis, 1994).

21 Prep Discuss one psychometric theory of intelligence. (4 marks + 8 marks) Choose Spearman or Cattell or Thurstone

22 A01 Psychometric theories focus on quantifying intelligence and measuring IQ. Key figures include Spearman, Thurstone, Cattell and Hebb. Candidates may choose from any of these theories, which cover the development of the concept of IQ, factor approaches to intelligence and its measurement, and fluid and crystallised intelligence (Hebb). Candidates should not be penalised for mislabelling a particular theory as long as the description itself is accurate. If aspects of two different theories are muddled, the more coherent one should be marked. Note that Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is not a psychometric theory. The question is on theories and any description of IQ tests is unlikely to earn AO1 marks. However the development of tests may be presented as a legitimate implication of a particular theory and earn AO2/AO3 marks.

23 A02 Psychometric theories focus on quantifying intelligence and measuring IQ. Key figures include Spearman, Thurstone, Cattell and Hebb. Candidates may choose from any of these theories, which cover the development of the concept of IQ, factor approaches to intelligence and its measurement, and fluid and crystallised intelligence (Hebb). Candidates should not be penalised for mislabelling a particular theory as long as the description itself is accurate. If aspects of two different theories are muddled, the more coherent one should be marked. Note that Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is not a psychometric theory. The question is on theories and any description of IQ tests is unlikely to earn AO1 marks. However the development of tests may be presented as a legitimate implication of a particular theory and earn AO2/AO3 marks.

24 Banding

25 How to Interpret a Correlation Coefficient
The sign and the absolute value of a correlation coefficient describe the direction and the magnitude of the relationship between two variables. The value of a correlation coefficient ranges between -1 and 1. The greater the absolute value of a correlation coefficient, the stronger the linear relationship. The strongest linear relationship is indicated by a correlation coefficient of -1 or 1. The weakest linear relationship is indicated by a correlation coefficient equal to 0. A positive correlation means that if one variable gets bigger, the other variable tends to get bigger. A negative correlation means that if one variable gets bigger, the other variable tends to get smaller. Keep in mind that the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient only measures linear relationships. Therefore, a correlation of 0 does not mean zero relationship between two variables; rather, it means zero linear relationship. (It is possible for two variables to have zero linear relationship and a strong curvilinear relationship at the same time.)

26 Test Discuss one psychometric theory of intelligence. 12

27 Next part Information processing theories, for example, Sternberg, Gardner Animal learning and intelligence

28 Aim Understand Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Be able to recreate the three types in the Triarchic theory. Understand the difference between this and the Psychometric theories.

29 Information processing theories
Cognitive psychology sees the individual as a processor of information, in much the same way that a computer takes in information and follows a program to produce an output. Remember the multi-store model of memory? For example, the eye receives visual information and codes information into electric neural activity which is fed back to the brain where it is “stored” and “coded”. This information can be used by other parts of the brain relating to mental activities such as memory, perception and attention. The output (i.e. behaviour) might be, for example, to read what you can see on a printed page.

30 Memory

31 Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence (1977, 1985, 1995) subsumes both Spearman’s g and underlying information processing components. His triarchic theory includes three facets or subtheories: Analytical (componential) Creative (experiential) Practical (contextual) Sternberg's theory builds on his earlier componential approach to reasoning. His theory is mostly based on observing Yale graduate students. Sternberg believes that if intelligence is properly defined & measured it will translate to real-life success. Sternberg's Triarchic Theory is an important effort to synthesize the various theories of intelligence.

32 Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

33 Analytical (componential) Facet (or Subtheory)
Analytical Intelligence similar to the standard psychometric definition of intelligence e.g. as measured by Academic problem solving: analogies and puzzles, and corresponds to his earlier componential intelligence. Sternberg considers this reflects how an individual relates to his internal world. Sternberg believes that Analytical Intelligence (Academic problem-solving skills) is based on the joint operations of metacomponents and performance components and knowledge acquisition components of intelligence Metacomponents: control, monitor and evaluate cognitive processing. These are the executive functions to order and organise performance and knowledge acquisition components. They are the higher-order processes that order and organise the performance components. Used to analyze problems and pick a strategy for solving them. They decide what to do and the performance components actually do it. Performance Components: execute strategies assembled by the metacomponents. They are the basic operations involved in any cognitive act. They are the cognitive processes that enable us to encode stimuli, hold information in short-term memory, make calculations, perform mental calculations, mentally compare different stimuli, retrieve information from long-term memory. Knowledge acquisition components: are the processes used in gaining and storing new knowledge - i.e. capacity for learning. The strategies you use to help memorize things exemplify the processes that fall into this category. Sternberg feels that IDs in intelligence are related to IDs in the use of these cognitive processes. He feels that people with better reasoning ability generally spend more time understanding the problem but reach their solution faster than those who are less skilled at the task.

34 Creative (experiential) Facet (or Subtheory)
Creative Intelligence: this involves insights, synthesis and the ability to react to novel situations and stimuli. This he considers the Experiential aspect of intelligence and reflects how an individual connects the internal world to external reality. Sternberg considers the Creative facet to consist of the ability which allows people to think creatively and that which allows people to adjust creatively and effectively to new situations. Sternberg believes that more intelligent individuals will also move from consciously learning in a novel situation to automating the new learning so that they can attend to other tasks. Two-Facet Subtheory (Novelty & Automatization) Basic assumption: That there are two broad classes of abilities associated with intelligence: novelty skills and automatization skills.  A task measures intelligence if it requires the ability to deal with novel demands or the ability to automatize information processing (two ends of a continuum). Novel tasks or situations are good measures of intellectual ability because they assess an individual's ability to apply existing knowledge to new problems.

35 Practical (contextual) Facet (or Subtheory)
Practical Intelligence: this involves the ability to grasp, understand and deal with everyday tasks. This is the Contextual aspect of intelligence and reflects how the individual relates to the external world about him or her. Sternberg states that Intelligence is: "Purposive adaptation to, shaping of, and selection of real-world environments relevant to one's life" (Sternberg, 1984, p.271) Purposive means that intelligence is directed towards goals, however vague or subconscious they may be. This means that intelligence is indicated by one's attempts to adapt to one's environment. Practical Intelligence can be said to be intelligence that operates in the real world. People with this type of intelligence can adapt to, or shape their environment. It might also be called “Street-smarts” (Hector). In measuring this facet, not only mental skills but attitudes and emotional factors that can influence intelligence are measured.

36 Practical (all good) So this practical intelligence is a combination of: (a) adaptation to the environment in order to have goals met (b) changing the environment in order to have goals met (c) or, if (a) and (b) don't work moving to a new environment in which goals can be met Sternberg believes that individuals considered intelligent in one culture may be looked on as unintelligent in another. An important asset of this theory is to avoid defining intelligence in terms of intelligence tests rather than performance in the everyday world (which is, after all, what intelligence tests try to predict!)

37 Measuring practical intelligence:
Sternberg and Wagner’s test of Practical Managerial Intelligence measures: ability to write effective memos ability to motivate people knowledge of when to delegate ability to “read” people When measuring practical intelligence Sternberg looks at things such as how people decode nonverbal messages e.g. can you tell who are the real couples? Sternberg Multidimensional Abilities Test measures all 3 intelligences, on separate scales

38 Look at article.

39 Gardner: take a test

40 https://prezi.com/lhtvvyqjbng7/a2-psychology-intelligence-and- learning-lesson-4/

41 Gardner: Multiple intelligence

42 Evaluation Musical and Body Kinaesthetic are talents not intelligence.
No tests to prove they exist Naturalistic an interest rather than intelligence. Kornhaber: Matches what teachers experience so has led to the theories being incorporated successfully into teaching practice. Turner provided evidence of Musical intelligence. Neuroscience proof shows distinct areas through brain imaging and brain damaged individuals.


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