1. Gender Mainstreaming in Teacher Training Institutions: A Guide for Gender Equality in the Policy and Practice of Teacher Education
Edem Adubra, Carolina Belalcázar
Section for Teacher Policy and Development
Division for Planning and Development of Education Systems
Gender Focal Point Network Training December 1, 2011

2. Rationale and Purpose
Teacher training institutions (TTIs) have a key responsibility in preparing individuals for the teaching profession, as well as citizens for an equal and just society.
Teachers can reproduce or potentially change gender inequalities in education and society.
There is an important call for teachers to be better prepared and outspoken on how to address gender equality in their own education, in future school settings and in their communities.
This Guide provides a framework for teacher training institutions (TTIs) on how to initiate, strengthen and assess gender mainstreaming (GM) in their institutional policy and practice.

3. Beneficiaries Direct Beneficiaries:
Teacher training institutions (TTIs):
E.g. Schools of Education, advanced normal schools within higher education levels of public and private universities, independent colleges, normal schools and other entities (NGOs) providing teacher training.
Teacher education policy-makers; managerial, administrative and clerical staff; teacher educators (e.g. faculty, teacher trainers) student teachers
Indirect Beneficiaries:
The schools where teachers will be posted and their students
The communities where the TTIs are located and the communities where teachers will be posted in the future.

4. A Whole Institutional Transformation Six Entry Points
Introduction
1) Teachers as Agents of Change
2) Institutional Policy-Making
3) Institutional Management and Staffing Practices
4) Recruitment of Student Teachers and their Future Profession
5) The Curriculum in Teacher Training Institutions
6) Monitoring Gender Mainstreaming in Teacher Training Institutions

5. 1. Teachers as Agents of Change
Change - > socio-cultural values, perceptions, and attitudes towards gender Teacher training institutions - as all educational institutions - mirror the strengths and weaknesses of their societies. Teacher training institutions – teachers- “live” gender inequality in their daily routines and social interactions but at the same time through the latter, they could also potentially play a considerable role in changing, and ‘’re-socializing’’ such inequalities and stagnated gender roles into a more equitable society. the gender socialization process between teacher training institutions and the community is mediated by teachers’ agency/actions

6. 2. Institutional Policy-Making
Mapping the Policy Contexts of Teacher Education:
Negotiation/Compromise/Collaboration
The step-by-step change implied by GM will not be defined only within the policy and managerial parameters of the institution.
In many countries teacher education appears to have several centres of control rather than one. Change will thus depend on the relative power over teacher education of national or provincial/state governments, the institutions themselves, and the individuals within them.
(Avalos, 2000; Popkewitz, 1993).

7. Policy-making at the Institutional Level – Deliberation and Appropriation
Deliberation: a collective process for engaging in “reflective criticism” (Williams, 1985) about the various beliefs and practices of staff regarding gender and the proposed policy change.
Participatory policy-making: women and men equally engaged + representative of all TTIs actors/stakeholders
Appropriation: policy ownership/adaptation by those who implement it; active discussion and participation in policy design, planning and implementation according to each context. Change cannot be mandated.
Informed policy making to establish priorities: quantitative/qualitative analyses of sex disaggregated data regarding TTI policies and practices and of staff’s needs and perceptions.
Resources: Is the allocation of funds being responsive to identified gender priorities? Are existing funds being allocated in equitable, transparent and accountable ways and that are supportive of gender equality?

8. 3. Institutional Management and Staffing Practices
The Status of Gender Equality in Managerial and Staffing Practices in TTIs
At the school leadership level (UIS, 2010) and within higher education and the administration of district offices:
Managerial positions are male dominated, especially in the upper levels. Women tend to predominate in clerical or lower managerial positions and have a low representation in decision-making processes.
Broader Research is Needed -> managerial and staffing practices per se in TTIs
A Breakdown of TTI Staff - disaggregated by role and sex; who is responsible for what
Hiring Practices- With what kind of training, qualifications and experience were female/male staff hired, and consequently with what kind of contract conditions, including tasks and responsibilities, and payment?
Is there an equal remuneration for both men and women who have the same tasks and responsibilities? Do these tasks provide both men and women an equal potential for promotion and an equal recognition of professional achievement?

9. Enhancing Equal and Active Gender Participation in All Staff Positions
Sex-based Quotas for Staff Positions - quotas for a balanced gender-representation in senior management and teaching positions; transitory and linked with professional development leading to active participation.
Professional Development and Promotion - If unbalanced gender representation in managerial/teaching positions can be attributed to initial disadvantages of an individual’s hiring qualifications, then professional development and promotional practices could be implemented to help offset this unbalance.
(e.g. planning &decision-making skills; primary and secondary teacher education training/subject matter - especially in science and math for female teacher educators).
Capacity Building on Gender Issues for Staff: all staff should be critically aware of gender equality issues and furthermore, participate in related gender training regarding their institutional role.
Safe, Non-discriminatory Educational and Working Environments: infrastructure, transportation, and policies on sexual harassment and discrimination in the work place.

10. 4. Recruitment of Student Teachers and their Future Profession
Teacher education programs and teacher training institutions vary greatly. The kind of minimum qualifications or examinations required by each institution to accept or select potential student teachers vary greatly. The educational outcomes of aspiring student teachers varies by gender; this may affect their training performance and career opportunities (e.g. girls are doing better in reading; boys in science and mathematics, though the gap appears to be closing in some regions - not in Southern and Eastern Africa (Ma, 2007; EFA GMR, 2008; UIS, 2010). & Socio-cultural and economic factors: the value given to the profession in society, how well it is remunerated; expenses of training; and traditional gender roles (Schwille and Dembélé, 2007; Stromquist; 2007; Kelleher, et al 2011)

11. A Tracking System of Recruitment:
What is the process? How does gender relate to qualifications and entry requirements, enrolment, retention and how does this evolve into completion? Socio-economic factors? (e.g. the costs of enrolment that both women and men have to bear for their training)
Incentives and Scholarships:
transportation allowance, food aid, clothing and other provisions for children and families. “These gifts have been given as incentives to women in South Sudan specifically to reduce resistance from husbands to their wives becoming teachers’’ (Kirk, 2006).
Flexible hours/shifts; programs not requiring women’s long absences from home and/or which allow women to take young children and even babysitters with them.
Scholarships for potential female and male student teachers to pursue training in subjects and levels in which they are underrepresented.
Setting up Gender Quotas & Support: gender quotas by training level and subject specialization/general education.
Support student teachers in the subject areas in which they are weak (females – math, sciences; males- language arts) to compensate during the training years for any prior unequal educational achievements.

12. The Transition to the Teaching Workforce and Gender
TTIs Tracking of Female and Male Student Teachers into the Profession:
The kind of teaching posts and contracts obtained by former female student teachers compared to their male counterparts (e.g. career –based, position-based; in urban or rural settings)? What kind of remuneration? In primary education or secondary education? Teaching what subjects?
In many countries there is a significant gender imbalance in the teaching force both at primary and secondary level in favor of one sex or the other. Neither case is optimal (UNESCO, 2003)
Globally, female teachers predominate in primary (62%) or lower secondary (54%) education with a general education preparation. Male teachers predominate in upper secondary education (e.g. Arab States, Sub-Saharan Africa) and show subject specialization, especially in math, sciences and ICTs (see UIS 2010, UIS 2011).
Collaboration with institutions that are in charge of professional recruitment (ministries, schools, communities, etc.) with the objective of bringing a gender balanced approach to the various mechanisms of professional recruitment.

13. 5. The Curriculum in Teacher Training Institutions
Great variation in teacher education at the pre-service and in-service levels.
(e.g. requirements, duration, sequence, contents, methods, staff involved; the balance of theory - education foundations and subject matter- and practice induction/practicum)
Teacher education as a learning continuum (Shulman, 1986):
Cohesively links/ties in teachers’ learning experience (including that of gender identity) across and throughout the various stages of training.
Teachers’ learning experience begins early on with their own schooling (apprenticeship of observation- Lortie 1975) which influences teachers’ identity formation including their gender roles in education and society.

14. Teacher-Student Interactions/pedagogies
Female student teachers’ underrepresentation in subjects of science and mathematics may be reflecting preceding unequal opportunities and performance of girls and boys in these subjects at the school level, as well as socio-cultural factors.
Reasons underlying gender differences in the learning outcomes of boys and girls:
Neural and cognitive development differences:
girls -> early advantage in verbal cognitive skills (e.g. verbal fluency, grammar and complex language)
boys -> non-verbal cognitive skills (e.g. spatial tasks and mathematical reasoning) (Weiss et al., 2003).
Social interactions: underlying the curriculum (Finn, 1980), learning environment (OECD, 2001) - promote separate gender roles and expectations for girls and boys; transmit attitudes, values and behaviours that reinforce stereotyping, discrimination, and even sexual incidents (Stromquist, 2007; Brenner, 1998).
Teacher-Student Interactions/pedagogies
the way teachers treat boys and girls in the classroom and in school:
biased/sexist/discriminatory/violent OR
Unbiased, differentiated, inclusive and tailored around the needs and strengths of each student; Equal and tolerant participation: active, cooperative and inquiry-based learning: quality education

15. Gender Role Models and Gender Equality in Learning Outcomes?
Debate: To what extent do female teachers or male teachers serve each as positive gender models that will help improve the educational outcomes of either boys or girls? (Kelleher, et. al 2011; UIS, 2010; EFA GMR 2008; Lahelma 2000).
Female teachers help assure girls´ access, enrolment, and completion, but not equal gender learning outcomes (EFA GMR, 2008; UIS 2010; UNESCO 2003)
There appears to be a positive correlation between the proportion of female teachers in primary education and girls’ gross enrolment ratios (GERS) in secondary education (UIS 2010).
Due to security issues which usually are more important for girls than for boys, having at least one female teacher per school is both a necessity and urgent (UNESCO, 2003).

16. Textbooks/Materials - Are texts and illustrations projecting a gender equitable society? Are materials gender-sensitive regarding language, images and examples used? (UNESCO, 2009)
Gender relations (e.g. gender violence and sex education)/subjects: should be part of the teacher education curriculum as well as of the secondary school curriculum.
Ex. In sub-Saharan Africa, adolescent girls are more likely than adolescent boys to report that a husband is justified in beating his wife under certain circumstances (UNICEF, 2011). **
In-service teacher education
Professional development arrangements should provide on-going support for teachers on how to address gender equality in the curriculum as well as in their professional lives.
Establishing formal and non-formal networks of teachers for peer interaction prevents isolation; on-going discussion of the socialization of gender roles in the school curriculum and in the community.
Identify support from community organizations on how to address gender equality and gender-based violence.

17. 6. Monitoring Gender Mainstreaming in Teacher Training Institutions
On-going supportive process of reflection and feedback ideally involving all members of the institution
Using both quantitative and qualitative measurements:
Measuring change – before and after - in policy, management, curriculum, recruitment, etc. as well within the interactions and values found within the institutional culture and its link with the community.
Information should be used and updated regularly in order to refine policy and implementation.

18. Where we are and where we are going
What are the main challenges and strengths for GM in teacher education contexts?
UNESCO IICBA Workshop
Gender Mainstreaming in Teacher Education Policy
October 4-7, 2011, Dakar, Senegal
Burkina Faso, Gambia, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, Senegal
Spanish Agency for International Development Cooperation & Ministry of Education of Spain
II National Meeting for Teachers in Education for Development: Creating Networks
November 4-6, 2011 Cuenca, España
Dissemination: publication
Piloting: identification of interested teacher training institutions; resource mobilization
Implementation: teacher training institutions
Monitoring

19. For more information or feedback, please contact: Edem Adubra, PhD
Thank you!
For more information or feedback, please contact:
Edem Adubra, PhD
Chief of the Section for Teacher Policy and Development
Division for Planning & Development of Education Systems (ED/PDE/TED)
UNESCO
Carolina Belalcazar, PhD
Consultant for Section for Teacher Policy and Development
Division for Planning & Development of Education Systems