1. Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life
Chapter 22
Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life

2. Overview: Darwin Introduces a Revolutionary Theory
A new era of biology began on November 24, 1859
The day Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection

3. The Origin of Species
Focused biologists’ attention on the great diversity of organisms
Figure 22.1

4. Darwin made two major points in his book
He presented evidence that the many species of organisms presently inhabiting the Earth are descendants of ancestral species
He proposed a mechanism for the evolutionary process, natural selection

5. In order to understand why Darwin’s ideas were revolutionary
Concept 22.1: The Darwinian revolution challenged traditional views of a young Earth inhabited by unchanging species
In order to understand why Darwin’s ideas were revolutionary
We need to examine his views in the context of other Western ideas about Earth and its life

6. The historical context of Darwin’s life and ideas
Figure 22.2
Linnaeus (classification)
Hutton (gradual geologic change)
Lamarck (species can change)
Malthus (population limits)
Cuvier (fossils, extinction)
Lyell (modern geology)
Darwin (evolution, nutural selection)
Mendel (inheritance)
Wallace (evolution, natural selection)
1750
American Revolution
French Revolution
U.S. Civil War
1800
1850
1900
1795
Hutton proposes his theory of gradualism.
1798
Malthus publishes “Essay on the Principle of Population.”
1809
Lamarck publishes his theory of evolution.
1830
Lyell publishes Principles of Geology.
1831–1836
Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle.
Darwin begins his notebooks on the origin of species.
1837
Darwin writes his essay on the origin of species.
1844
Wallace sends his theory to Darwin.
1858
The Origin of Species is published.
1859
Mendel publishes inheritance papers.
1865

7. Carolus Linnaeus
Interpreted organismal adaptations as evidence that the Creator had designed each species for a specific purpose
Was a founder of taxonomy, classifying life’s diversity “for the greater glory of God”

8. Fossils, Cuvier, and Catastrophism
The study of fossils
Helped to lay the groundwork for Darwin’s ideas
Fossils are remains or traces of organisms from the past
Usually found in sedimentary rock, which appears in layers or strata
Figure 22.3

9. Paleontology, the study of fossils
Was largely developed by French scientist Georges Cuvier
Cuvier opposed the idea of gradual evolutionary change
And instead advocated catastrophism, speculating that each boundary between strata represents a catastrophe

10. Theories of Gradualism
Is the idea that profound change can take place through the cumulative effect of slow but continuous processes

11. Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution
Lamarck hypothesized that species evolve
Through use and disuse and the inheritance of acquired traits
But the mechanisms he proposed are unsupported by evidence
Figure 22.4

12. Darwin’s interest in the geographic distribution of species
Was kindled by the Beagle’s stop at the Galápagos Islands near the equator west of South America
Figure 22.5
England
EUROPE
NORTH
AMERICA
Galápagos
Islands
Darwin in 1840,
after his return
SOUTH
Cape of
Good Hope
Cape Horn
Tierra del Fuego
AFRICA
HMS Beagle in port
AUSTRALIA
Tasmania
New
Zealand
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Andes
ATLANTIC

13. Darwin’s Focus on Adaptation
As Darwin reassessed all that he had observed during the voyage of the Beagle
He began to perceive adaptation to the environment and the origin of new species as closely related processes

14. In June 1858 Darwin received a manuscript from Alfred Russell Wallace
In 1844, Darwin wrote a long essay on the origin of species and natural selection
But he was reluctant to introduce his theory publicly, anticipating the uproar it would cause
In June 1858 Darwin received a manuscript from Alfred Russell Wallace
Who had developed a theory of natural selection similar to Darwin’s
Darwin quickly finished The Origin of Species
And published it the next year

15. Darwin developed two main ideas
The Origin of Species
Darwin developed two main ideas
Evolution explains life’s unity and diversity
Natural selection is a cause of adaptive evolution

16. Descent with Modification
The phrase descent with modification
Summarized Darwin’s perception of the unity of life
States that all organisms are related through descent from an ancestor that lived in the remote past

17. In the Darwinian view, the history of life is like a tree
With multiple branchings from a common trunk to the tips of the youngest twigs that represent the diversity of living organisms
Figure 22.7
Hyracoidea
(Hyraxes)
Sirenia
(Manatees
and relatives)
Years ago
Millions of years ago
Deinotherium
Mammut
Stegodon
Mammuthus
Platybelodon
Barytherium
Moeritherium
Elephas
maximus
(Asia)
Loxodonta
africana
(Africa)
cyclotis

18. Natural Selection and Adaptation
Evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr
Has dissected the logic of Darwin’s theory into three inferences based on five observations

19. Observation #1: For any species, population sizes would increase exponentially
If all individuals that are born reproduced successfully
Figure 22.8

20. Observation #2: Nonetheless, populations tend to be stable in size
Except for seasonal fluctuations
Observation #3: Resources are limited
Inference #1: Production of more individuals than the environment can support
Leads to a struggle for existence among individuals of a population, with only a fraction of their offspring surviving

21. Observation #4: Members of a population vary extensively in their characteristics
No two individuals are exactly alike
Figure 22.9

22. Observation #5: Much of this variation is heritable
Inference #2: Survival depends in part on inherited traits
Individuals whose inherited traits give them a high probability of surviving and reproducing are likely to leave more offspring than other individuals

23. Inference #3: This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce
Will lead to a gradual change in a population, with favorable characteristics accumulating over generations

24. In the process of artificial selection
Humans have modified other species over many generations by selecting and breeding individuals that possess desired traits
Figure 22.10
Terminal
bud
Lateral
buds
Brussels sprouts
Cabbage
Flower
cluster
Leaves
Cauliflower
and
stems
Broccoli
Wild mustard
Kohlrabi
Stem
Kale

25. Summary of Natural Selection
Natural selection is differential success in reproduction
That results from the interaction between individuals that vary in heritable traits and their environment

26. In the adaptation of organisms to their environment
Natural selection can produce an increase over time
In the adaptation of organisms to their environment
Figure 22.11
(a) A flower mantid in Malaysia
(b) A stick mantid in Africa

27. If an environment changes over time
Natural selection may result in adaptation to these new conditions

28. Concept 22.3: Darwin’s theory explains a wide range of observations
Darwin’s theory of evolution
Continues to be tested by how effectively it can account for additional observations and experimental outcomes

29. The ability of bacteria and viruses to evolve rapidly
Poses a challenge to our society

30. Homology
Homology
Is similarity resulting from common ancestry

31. Anatomical Homologies
Homologous structures between organisms
Are anatomical resemblances that represent variations on a structural theme that was present in a common ancestor
Figure 22.14
Human
Cat
Whale
Bat

32. Comparative embryology
Reveals additional anatomical homologies not visible in adult organisms
Figure 22.15
Pharyngeal
pouches
Post-anal
tail
Chick embryo
Human embryo

33. Vestigial organs Are some of the most intriguing homologous structures
Are remnants of structures that served important functions in the organism’s ancestors

34. Molecular Homologies
Biologists also observe homologies among organisms at the molecular level
Such as genes that are shared among organisms inherited from a common ancestor

35. Anatomical resemblances among species
Are generally reflected in their molecules, their genes, and their gene products
Figure 22.16
Species
Human
Rhesus monkey
Mouse
Chicken
Frog
Lamprey
14%
54%
69%
87%
95%
100%
Percent of Amino Acids That Are
Identical to the Amino Acids in a
Human Hemoglobin Polypeptide

36. Biogeography
Darwin’s observations of the geographic distribution of species, biogeography
Formed an important part of his theory of evolution

37. Some similar mammals that have adapted to similar environments
Have evolved independently from different ancestors
Sugar
glider
AUSTRALIA
NORTH
AMERICA
Flying
squirrel
Figure 22.17

38. The succession of forms observed in the fossil record
Is consistent with other inferences about the major branches of descent in the tree of life

39. The Darwinian view of life
Predicts that evolutionary transitions should leave signs in the fossil record
Paleontologists
Have discovered fossils of many such transitional forms
Figure 22.18

40. What Is Theoretical about the Darwinian View of Life?
In science, a theory
Accounts for many observations and data and attempts to explain and integrate a great variety of phenomena