1. The workaholism phenomenon: A cross-national perspective Raphael Snir The Department of Economics and Management The Academic College of Tel Aviv-Yaffo Itzhak Harpaz The Center for the Study of Organizations and Human Resource Management University of Haifa Israel mail to address:
Copenhagen, Denmark August 2004

2. The main alternative views concerning workaholism
Workaholism as a negative phenomenon.
Workaholism as a positive phenomenon.
Existence of different types of workaholics.

3. Definition of workaholism
Snir and Zohar (2000) define workaholism as the individual’s steady and considerable allocation of time to work-related activities and thoughts, which is not derived from external necessities.

4. Advantages of the definition
First, it includes the prominent core element of workaholism, without determining a priori whether workaholism produces positive, negative, or mixed consequences for workaholics, their families and their work environments.
Second, the substantial behavioral and cognitive investment in work has to be steady, meaning it should not result from a temporary workload.
Third, this definition also considers external necessities that might foster workaholism.
Fourth, this definition is not based on work attitudes or values.

5. The purpose of the study
Research of cross-national differences and similarities concerning workaholism.

6. Samples
The data analyzed here are drawn from a larger multinational, comparative project dealing with the meaning of work (MOW), which was conducted by an international team of researchers during the early eighties ( ). Random samples representing the labor force in eight countries (Belgium, Britain, Israel, Japan, the Netherlands, the USA, West Germany, and former Yugoslavia) participated in the MOW project.

7. Only five countries collected data pertaining to workaholism:
Belgium (n=450)
Israel (n=973)
Japan (n=3226)
The Netherlands (n=996)
The USA (n=1000)

8. Cross-national differences
Hypothesis 1
The Japanese will work more hours per
week than any of the other nationalities.

9. Cross-national similarities
Hypotheses 2-5

10. Hypothesis 2
Respondents with a high level of work centrality will work more hours per week than will those with a low level of work centrality.

11. Hypothesis 3
Men will work more hours per week than women.

12. Hypothesis 4
Married women will work fewer hours per week than unmarried women, while married men will work more hours per week than unmarried men.

13. Hypothesis 5
Private sector employees will work more hours per week than public sector employees.

14. Measurement
Workaholism was measured as the total weekly work hours (including overtime), while controlling the financial needs for this time-investment.
Financial needs were measured by an index that takes into account marital status, whether or not the respondent’s spouse is working (at least in a part-time job), and the number of people that are financially dependent on the respondent.
The financial needs score was transformed into a z score, within the country to which the individual belonged. Only individuals who did not have high financial needs (meaning, those with a z score equal to or lower than 1) were included in the inferential statistical analyses.

15. Hypotheses 1-5 were supported.
Results
Hypotheses 1-5 were supported.

16. Hypothesis 1

18. Hypothesis 2

19. Hypothesis 3

20. Hypothesis 4

21. Hypothesis 5

22. Contributions to research on workaholism
Using a non-biased definition of workaholism (Snir & Zhoar, 2000), which does not attribute a priori a positive or negative value to this phenomenon.
The finding that men, as compared to women, have a greater likelihood of being workaholics may indicate that the existing conceptualizations of workaholism as an attitude or a trait (e.g., Machlowitz, 1980; Naughton, 1987; Spence & Robbins, 1992) have underestimated the importance of sex-roles in shaping work patterns and behaviors.
There are findings of differences as well as of similarities across nations on the phenomenon of workaholism.

23. Sampling method
Respondents were selected by various random methods: Stepwise random selection according to random household identification, random choice among those who fell within prescribed categories, and random quota sampling. Comparisons with census data in each country showed a high degree of representativeness in the samples

24. The measure of workaholism
The measure was found to have high predictive validity regarding the cognitive component of Snir and Zohar’s (2000) definition. Snir (1998) conducted a study according to the Experience-Sampling Method, which attempts to sample randomly from people’s everyday experiences. A convenience sample of 65 full-time employees provided four randomly sampled self-reports per day of their activities, thoughts and feelings over a one-week period. It was found that workaholism, as a predictor variable, was positively correlated with thinking about work in general and also in non-work settings during that one-week period.

25. Hypothesis 1
Using a one-way ANOVA, a significant effect for nationality was revealed (F (4,4763) = 83.59, p<0.001), thus confirming hypothesis 1. Contrast tests showed that the Japanese worked more hours per week than any of the other nationalities. The Contrast tests results are presented in Table 1.

26. Hypothesis 2
Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4 were examined via MANOVA. A significant main effect for work centrality was revealed (F (1, 4571)=36.43, p<0.001), thus confirming hypothesis 2. Respondents with a high level of work centrality worked more hours per week (Mean=46.22, SD=13.43) than did those with a low level of work centrality (Mean=42.09, SD=12.30). A significant effect for a two-way interaction of work centrality by nationality was found (F (4, 4571)=2.95, p<0.05). However, the direction of the simple effects of work centrality remained stable across nations.

27. Hypothesis 3
A significant main effect for gender was also revealed (F (1, 4571)=174.29, p<0.001), thus confirming hypothesis 3. Men worked more hours per week (Mean=47.71, SD=12.11) than women (Mean=39.61, SD=12.76). A significant effect for a two-way interaction of gender by nationality was found (F (4, 4571)=5.27, p<0.001). However, the direction of the simple effects of gender remained stable across nations.

28. Hypothesis 4
Hypothesis 4 was also supported by the finding of a significant two-way interaction of gender by marital status (F (1, 4571)=44.71, p<0.001). Married women worked fewer hours per week (Mean=38.35, SD=13.41) than unmarried women (Mean=41.94, SD= 11.09), while married men worked more hours per week (Mean=48.43, SD=12.22) than unmarried men (Mean=45.49, SD=11.46). A significant effect for a three-way interaction of gender by marital status by nationality was found (F (4, 4571)=2.60, p<0.05). However, the above pattern of the two-way interaction of gender by marital status remained stable across nations.

29. Hypothesis 5
Using MANOVA, a significant main effect for employment sector was revealed (F (1, 2067)=27.59, p<0.001), thus confirming hypothesis 5. Private-sector employees worked more hours per week (Mean=41.55, SD=11.92) than public-sector employees (Mean=39.01, SD=11.38). No significant effect for a two-way interaction of employment sector by nationality was found (p>0.05). Namely, the simple effects of employment sector were similar across nations.