1. The Localized function of memory in the brain
THE IB SYLLABUS SAYS: Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain

2. Seminar on the localization of memory
On Wednesday, in groups, you will lead a 10 to 15 minute seminar on your assigned topic
You will prepare questions for the discussion, and also a 1 A4 HANDOUT for the seminar
We will sit around in a circle, and you will share your knowledge of the section you have been assigned, and lead the discussion when it comes to your section
In order to take part, you have to have produced your own notes for the seminar on the page numbers shown on the topics slide
For the bibliography: the handout comes from
Crane, J. & Hannibal, J. (2009). Psychology: A course companion. Oxford: Oxford University Press

3. Seminar Rubric Creation
On the blank rubric, come up with some bullet points to work out what a good seminar would be like, then to

4. Seminar Topics
Early case studies and an intro to memory & the brain and the work of Eric Kendel, and the methods used by neuroscientists to study the biological localization of memory (p. 43 &76) (Louis, Zach, Klaire)
The structure of LTM and the brain structures involved in memory (p.77) (Katalyna, Alessandra, Hyun Kyu)
Defining amnesia, and the case study of Clive Wearing and how it relates to localization of function (p.78 & 79) (Micah, Christina, Dillon)
An explanation of what a Case Study/ethics of case studies & and the case of HM (and how it relates to localization of function)(p. 35, 36 p.79) (Audrey, Nikki, Krystal)

5. To Do..
Read and research your assigned section/ produce your handout (look at the page numbers referenced and you can also do some of your own research)
Prepare who within your group will present on each section
Prepare 5 discussion topics to ask the group on the section you present on.
Complete handout to before WEDNESDAY 7.30am for printing
Make sure you have read every section and taken some notes so you are well prepared for the seminar.

6. Localization of Function: Memory & the Brain
Memory is the job of the brain
Science is continually exploring the way memory is organized in the brain
But there are still many mysteries about the biological correlates of memory.
Cognitive psychologists and neuroscientists work together to find out about the brain structures involved in memory

7. Eric Kendel is a neuroscientist who won the Nobel Prize in 2000.
He studies learning and memory at a cellular level in the sea snail aplysia, a very simple organism.
He found that STM as well as LTM result in synaptic changes in the neural networks of these sea snails
The snails memory is located in the synapses, and he observed that changes in these synapses are important in memory formation.
Kendel also studied memory functioning in relation to synaptic changes in the brain structure called the hippocampus

8. Some biological factors in memory
It is not yet possible to have a full picture of the complexity of the biological foundations of memory, but brain research has provided some major insights into the nature of memory.
Kandel’s (2000) research with snails shows that learning, means formation of a memory – that is growing new connections or strengthening existing connections

9. Researchers have used animals to study how areas of the brain are related to memory.
Typically, animals learn to perform a specific task, for example running through a maze – and a memory is formed.
To find out what areas of the brain are involved in such a task, researchers cut away brain tissue and the animal has to run through the maze again.
This procedure, called lesioning, is repeated a number of times until the animal can no longer perform the task – allowing researchers to connect structure with function (Lashley did this type of research)

10. Obviously, scientists cannot to this to humans, so researches study people who already have brain damage
Such research suggests that STM and LTM are distinct separate stores of memory (supporting the MSM)
They also suggest that LTM must consist of several stores of memory.
Damage to different parts of the brain affects factual knowledge, or knowledge for example of how to drive a car

11. The structures of long term memory:
Explicit Memories
Implicit Memories
Procedural Memories
(memory of how we
do things)
HOW
Emotional
Memories
(memory of
emotional states)
HOW
Semantic Memories
(memories of facts)
WHAT
Episodic Memories
(Memories of events)
WHEN

12. The structure of LTM
At the first level, LTM is divided into two systems – the first is explicit, this consists of fact based information that can be consciously retrieved. This type of memory focuses on ‘knowing what’
Explicit memory is divided into two subsystems – the first is semantic memory, which is a memory for general knowledge - e.g. Mick Jagger is a signer in the Rolling Stones
Episodic memory is the memory of personal experiences and events – e.g. I saw Mick Jagger last year in New York.

13. The Second unit of LTM is implicit memory, which contains memories which we are not consciously aware of.
Implicit memory contains memories we are not consciously aware of, one of these is procedural memory, which is the non conscious memory for skills, habits and actions – “knowing how”.
Implicit memory also includes emotional memory, which is not fully understood.
It seems that emotional memories are formed via the limbic system and they may persist even when brain damage has destroyed other memories.

14. Researchers such as Kendel have point out the very important role of the hippocampus in the formation of explicit memories
Case studies of people with hippocampal damage have shown that they can no longer form new explicit memories, but apparently they can form new implicit memories
There is evidence that the amygdala plays a role in the storage of implicit emotional memories, perhaps because emotions are used evaluate experience.

15. Le Doux found that certain memories based on emotional events are remembered better.
This may be why people suffering from PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) have problems forgetting, because emotional memories are quite difficult to get rid of.
Researchers are beginning to find out how the brain regulates emotional expressions, and they have observed that when part of the prefrontal cortex is damaged, emotional memory is very hard to eliminate, and it is difficult to control emotional outbursts.

16. Some definitions….
Amnesia can be defined as the ‘inability to learn new information or retrieve information that has already been stored in memory.’
Neuroscientists distinguish between two key types of amnesia
Anterograde amnesia is the failure to store memories after a trauma
Retrograde amnesia is the failure to recall memories that have been stored before the trauma.
Amnesia can be caused by brain injury or infection. In the case of prolonged misuse of alcohol, a special sort of amnesia called Korsakoff’s syndrome may result.

17. Clive Wearing: How brain damage affects memory processing
Can you imagine what it would be like if you were caught in the present and unable to remember anything from your past or to learn anything new?
What if you were lost in time, with no sense of the past or future?
This is exactly what happed to Clive Wearing- Oliver Sacks (1997) documented his case (see article)

18. Clive Wearing suffers from the most extensive amnesia ever seen.
He suffers from both anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
The transcript of his diary gives a heartbreaking insight into what its like to lose ones memory.
MRI scanning of Clive Wearing’s brain shows damage to the hippocampus and some of the frontal regions.
This indicates that retrograde amnesia could be explained as ‘trauma that can disrupt the consolidation of memory’.
The case of Clive Wearing offers insight into the biological foundation of different memory systems. Wearing’s episodic memory and some semantic memory is lost. He cannot transfer new information to long term memory either.

19. Clive Wearing can still play the piano and conduct the music he knew before his illness. These skills are part of his implicit memory.
The fact that he can do this is evidence of a distributed memory system, since implicit memory is linked to a brain structure other than the hippocampus.
His emotional memory is also intact, which is clearly demonstrated in the affection he constantly shows for his wife
Normally, we do not know the identity of most participants in case studies. Researchers are obliged to keep personal information confidential. However, in the case of Clive Wearing is different because his wife has decided to come forward with his story.

20. Ethics in case study research
HM and Clive Wearing are famous case studies in cognitive psychology. HM has been studies extensively with all kinds of tests, ever since his operation in He has even donated his brain to science when he dies. We do not know his identity. Clive Wearings identity is known to us due to his wife's book.
1) discuss why participants in case studies are normally anonymous
2) discuss the ethical considerations in studying an individual with an interesting disorders or brain damage, such as HM and Clive Wearing

21. Biology and memory: Questions to check your understanding
What are cognitive psychologists and neuroscientists working on to find out about memory?
What has the research shown us so far about memory?
Who is Eric Kandel, what did he study, and what did he find?
How have researchers used animals to find out about memory? What is the name of the procedure used?
What are the main divisions of LTM?
What brain structure are involved in LTM, and what aspect of LTM are these different structures involved in?
What is the difference between antergorade and retrograde amnesia?
What does Clive wearing suffer from?
What areas of Clive Wearing memory remain intact and which areas are affected?
What does the case of Clive Wearing tell use about the biology of memory?
Why was Clive Wearing’s identity not kept anonymous?
Discuss why the identity of participants in case studies are normally anonymous
Discuss the ethical considerations in studying an individual with an interesting disorder or brain damage, such as HM and Clive Wearing
What is a case study?
How can case studies be helpful to neuroscientists?
How would neuroscientists determine if a case studies could be generalized to explain human memory?

22. Reflection Exercise
(HW/ Participation grade task)
Log into your school , get the rubric and use the highlighter tool on the rubric for a self assessment and then send it to *make sure your name appears in the document name
2. In the body of the
Write a paragraph commenting on your personal performance, and for the group as a whole, highlight what went well, and what could be improved
Then write a few well structured paragraphs (Mini SAQ), from memory on the topic of:
“Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain”