1. Major Process of Word Formation4
Major Process of Word Formation

2. 4.1 Morphemes, Root and Affix
Morphemes （词素）: the smallest meaningful linguistic units of words. They are not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.
“the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words”
Greek Morphe (=form) + -eme, (cf. phoneme, sememe)
Morph: minimal carriers of meaning (形素)
nation
nation + al
nation + al +ize
de + nation + al
de + nation + al + iz + ation
c. f. Phonemes: yes /j/, /e/, /s/

3. A morpheme vs. A syllable
A word may be analyzable into one or more morphemes A morpheme is also an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern.
A morpheme vs. A word
A morpheme is not autonomous. Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words. They can not be used independently, although a word may consist of a single morpheme. Nor are morphemes divisible into smaller meaningful units. That is why the morpheme may be defined as the minimum meaningful language unit.
A morpheme vs. A syllable
A syllable has nothing to do with meaning. A morpheme may be represented by one syllable, like boy and child, or by two or more syllables, as in la.dy.
e.g. crocodile, salamander, disagreeable
Often the syllabic structure of a word and its morphemic structure do not correspond.

4. Allomorphs（形素变体）: morphemes that are realized by more than one morphs
allo (Greek) "other”,
(cf. allophones, allomorphs).
e.g. -ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation (proportional) variants of the same suffix)
verbs ending with /t/, -- -ion, invention, position,
verbs ending with consonants other than /t/, -- -tion, description
verbs ending in -ify and –ize-- -ation, justification modernization
verbs ending in -d, -de, or –mit-- -sion, expansion, decision, omission.
"A allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds".

5. Allomorphs also occur among prefixes
Allomorphs also occur among prefixes. Their form then depends on the first letter of the verb to which they will be added.
e.g.
im- before p,b, or m, imperfect, imbalance, immobile;
ir- before r, irresponsible, irregular;
il- before l, illegal, illogical;
in- before all other consonants and vowels, inflexible, inexcusable;
im-,ir-, and il- are thus allomorphs of the morpheme, in-.

6. Classification of Morphemes
Free morphemes and bound morphemes
Free morphemes(自由词素）：independent of other morphemes. A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense.
e.g. man, faith, read, write, red
Bound morphemes(粘附词素): morphemes that can not occur as separate words. It can not stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound.
-ly , re- , -ed, -s
Inflectional elements and affixes are bound morphemes.
Lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemes
Lexical morphemes: used for the construction of new words.
e.g. blackbird, leadership, modernize
Grammatical morpheme: used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context.
e.g. books, studied

7. Roots and affixes e.g. work, workable, worker, worked, working
1.  Root (or root morphemes) : the basic unchangeable part of a word, and covers the main lexical meaning of the word.
e.g. work, workable, worker, worked, working
-- semantically related words
Roots are, therefore, the cores of English words. Historically, the root is the earliest form of a word. Roots are either free or bound:
a. Free root: In English many roots are free morphemes, such as boy, moon, walk, black ( i.e. they can stand alone as words).
A word consisting of one free root (or one morpheme) is a simple words. Free roots, just like simple words, belong to the basic word-stock, and have the fundamental features of the basic word-stock . Free roots provide the English language with basis for the formation of new words.

8. b. Bound roots: Quite a number of roots derived from foreign sources, esp. from Greek and Latin, belong to the class of bound morphemes.
A root, whether it is free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.
Notice what the following words have in common:
e.g. -tain contain, detain retain
-ceive conceive, deceive receive.
revive vitamin vital vivacious vivid
In Modern English, they are not words, and not free morphemes; they cannot exist on their own. Nor can they be used to form new words, because these items have no identity outside the small group of words in which they appear. So on formal grounds, -ceive, -tain are considered bound morphemes or bound roots which always occur in morphemic sequences, i.e. in combination with roots or affixes.
(L tenere "to hold")
(L capere "to take")

9. 例词 基本 第一种 第二种 意义单位 符号(词) 符号（词根） 人 man anthro 花 flower anth(o)
基本 第一种 第二种
意义单位 符号(词) 符号（词根）
人 man anthro
花 flower anth(o)
时 time chron
色 colour chrom
水 water hydr(o)
石 stone lite(o)
牙 tooth dent(i)
头 head cephal
脚 foot ped
音 sound phon
日 sun sol
月 moon lun
星 star astro(er)
世界 world cosm(o)
生命 life bi(o)
中心 center center 例词
anthropology, philanthropy
anthesis, chrysanthemum
chronic, synchronic
chromatic, bichrome
hydrate, hydroelectric
aerolith, neolith, paleolith
dentist, dentiform,
cephalalgia, cephalitis
uniped, pediform
phonetics, microphone
solar, insolation
lunar， lunatic
astrology, astronomy
cosmic, cosmopolis
biotic, antibiotic
central eccentric

10. Plural markers: -s, -es, -en, feet, sheep Genitive case: -’s
2. Affix: a " collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme." Affixes, therefore, are considered bound morphemes.
Inflectional affixes (inflectional morphemes): serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with a new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is affixed.
Plural markers: -s, -es, -en, feet, sheep
Genitive case: -’s
Verbal endings: -ing, -(e)d, irregular verbs,
Comparative and superlative degrees: -er, -est
The number of inflectional affixes are small and fixed; no new ones have bee added since 1500.

11. Derivational affixes (derivational morphemes): They are so called because when they are added to another morpheme, they "derive" a new word.
e.g. re+write,mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, mean+ness, work+er.
Quite a number of other derivational affixes have more than one meaning.
e.g. de to undo what has been done, to reverse the action of decentralize, decode
2. to remove: to debone
3. to reduce: devalue
4. (esp. in grammar) coming from sth. else: a deverbal noun

12. Derivational affixes do not only have independent lexical meaning but also affective meaning.
e.g. prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- -- pejorative
suffix: -ling -- derogatory : hireling, weakling
-ish, -- "of the nature of," -- derogatory: bookish uppish.
derivational affixes which can be attached to words of different words-classes:
e.g. -able -- verbs -- washable
-- nouns -- marriageable;
The number of derivational affixes, although limited, is much larger than that of inflectional affixes. New ones are coined from time to time.
e.g. Russian: sputnik (1957),
-nik beatnik, peacenik computernik

13. At the same time old ones have dropped out of use, although they may have a fossilized existence in a number of words in the language.
-th – depth, width – died out;
-wise: clockwise – budgetwise, weatherwise
Derivational morphemes or derivational affixes are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes. Affixes before the word are called prefixes (as in supermarket) those after are called suffixes ( as in friendship).

14. Both prefixes and suffixes may be grouped according to:
(1) Their linguistic origin:
OE affixes: un-, mis-, be-, out-, over-, -ness, -dom, -hood, -ly, and -er.
Foreign affixes: ab-(L), bi- (L), dis-(L), re-(L), kilo(GK), poly(GK), mal-(F),-able(F), -ism(GK), -ic(GK).
(2)  Their productivity:
Affixes (such as re-, un-, -able, -ize) are called productive or living when they can be used to form new words. Those that are no longer used to form new words are termed dead or unproductive.
e.g. for- forgets, forgive, forbid
-with withdraw, withhold, withstand

15. free = free root morpheme bound root bound inflectional affixes
prefixes
derivational affixes
suffixes

16. Word-formation 1 General Remarks
Since World War II the bulk of the new words in the English vocabulary has been due largely to the working of these processes.
Percentage of new words coined by the different word-formation processes after World War II
(1)The three major processes of word-formation
a. Compounding or composition (about 27%)
b. Derivation or affixation (about 17.5%);
c. Conversion (about 10.5%)
Note: these three processes account for 55% of the new vocabulary.

17. (2) The eight minor processes of word-formation
a. initialism and acronymy (about 9%)
b. Blending (about 6%)
c. Clipping (about 2%)
d. Words from proper names (about 2%)
e. Back formation (about 1%)
f. Reduplication (about 0.5%)
g. Neoclassical formations (about 4%)
h. Others ( about 3%)
Words formed by these minor processes account for 26.5% of the new vocabulary. The remaining 18.5% is from borrowing and many others.

18. Root, stem, base
As defined by Bauer:
" A root (词根) is a form which is not further analyzable, either in terms of derivational or inflectional morphology. It is that part of a word-from that remains when all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. A root is the basic part always present in a lexeme." (Bauer 1983:20)
e.g. un desire able s
greenhouse-- green house.
Bauer defines "stem" as follows:
" A stem （词干） is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. ... Inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it: it is the part of the word-form which remains when all the inflectional affixes have been removed,“
book+s, teacher+s,

19. A base （词基） is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; it may also be defined as "a form to which a rule of word formation is applied."
analyzable root (or base) (derivational) suffix
desire able
Derivational prefix analyzable base
un desirable
stem (or base) inflectional suffix
undesirable s
root, stem, or base inflectional suffix
desire d

20. 4.2 Derivation 1. Definition
Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base. To be more exact, derivation may be defined as a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element, such as prefix, suffix or combining form, to an already existing word.

21. 4.3 Prefixation
Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefix.
Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the base. They do not generally change the word-class of the base.
fair--- unfair
BUT:
be- adj.-- v. becalm, belittle ; de- n. -- v. deform, debug;
en- n. -- v. enslave, endanger; un- n. ---v. unleash, unearth;
anti- n.-- adj. anti-war, anti-aircraft
inter-adj.--inter-state, inter-laboratory
post- n.-- adj. postwar, post liberation;
pre- n.-- adj. Pre-calculus, pre-plant

22. 1. Classification of prefixes
1) "negative" prefixes (a(n)-, dis- , in-, non-, un-)
a- (an-) – ‘lacking in’ or ’lack of’: anarchy, amoral
dis- ‘not’ or ‘the converse of’: disloyal, dislike, disjoint
in- (im-,il-, ir-) ‘not’ or ‘the converse of’: infamous, illegal, impossible, irregular
non- ‘not’: nonessential, non-smoker, non-stop, non-science
un- ‘not’ or ‘the converse of’: unwise, unhappy, unease

23. 2) "reversative or privative" prefixes (de-, dis- , un-)
de- ‘reversing the action’: decentralize, deforest, deregulate
‘depriving of’: defraud, denude, deforestation
dis-‘reversing the action’: disconnect, dishearten
‘lacking’: discoloured, disinterested
un- ‘reversing the action’: unpack, un-wrap, unzip
‘depriving of’,‘releasing from’or ‘degrading’: unleash
unhorse, unmask
3) "pejorative" prefixes (mis-, mal-,pseudo-);
mal- ‘badly’, ‘bad’: malfunction, malformed, malnutrition
mis- ‘wrongly’, ‘astray’: mishear, mislead, mis-conduct, misleading,
pseudo-‘false’or‘inmitation’: pseudoscience, pseudo-democratic, pseudonym

24. 4) "prefixes of degree or size (arch-, co-, hyper-, mini- ,out-, over-, sub-, super-, sur, ultra-, under-,)
arch- ‘supreme’, ‘most’: arch-enemy, arch-bishop
co- ‘joint’, ‘jointly’: cooperate, co-exist, coeducation, combat, combine, concur
New words: coedism, co-opt,
hyper- ‘ extreme’or’too’: hypercritical,--active,--sensitive.
mini- ‘little’: mini-cab, mini-bus, mini-(mini-)skirt
out- ‘surpassing’: outgrow, outlive, outman, out-weigh
over- ‘ excessive’: overdressed, overconfident, oversensitive
sub- ‘below’: subnormal, subconscious, subsonic
super- ‘more than’, ’very special’ : super-natural, superabundant, superman, super-market, supersized
‘on top’, ‘hierarchially superior’: superpower

25. sur- ‘over and above’: surcharge, surtax, surpass
But: surname: the name one shares with the other members of one’s family.
surview: a general view or considering of a place or condition.
surmount: to conquer, especially difficulties.
ultra- ‘extreme’, ‘beyond’: ultrashort, ultrasonic, ultra-fashionable, ultra-conservative
under- ‘too little’: undercharge, uderestimate, underprivileged
New words: underdevelope, underpproduce, undertax, underserviced
‘subordinate’ : undermanager, undersecretary

26. 5) prefixes of attitude (anti-, contra, counter-, pro-)
anti- ‘against’: antislavery, anti-war anti-national, anti-social, antibacterial
Cf. anti-art, anti-hero
Contra- ‘opposite’: contradiction, contradistinction, contrafactual
counter- ‘against’, ‘in opposition to’: counteract, counter-revolution, counterclaim, countercurrent
New ones: counterexample, counterproductive
Anti-: simply an attitude of opposition;
Counter-: an action in opposition to or in response to an action
pro- ‘for’, ‘on the side of’: pro-American, prostudent pro-common market
‘on behalf of’ ‘deputizing for’: pro-consul

27. 6) "locative" prefixes (fore-, inter-, sub-, super-, trans-);
fore- ‘front part of’: foreman, foreground, forehead, foreword, foreshore
inter- ‘between’’among’: international, intermarry, inter-play, interstate, interlibrary
sub- ‘under’: sub-way, sub-conscious, sublet, submarine
super- ‘above’: superficial, superstructure
trans- ‘across’: transform, transplant, trans-Siberian

28. 7) prefixes of time and order (ex-, fore-,pre-, post-, re-);
ex- ‘former’: ex-president, ex-manager, ex-soldier
fore- ‘before’ : foretell, forsee, foreknowledge, foreshadow
post- ‘after’: post-war, post-election, post-doctoral
pre- ‘before’: pre-war, pre-liberation, pre-knowledge
re- ‘again’ ‘back’: reconsider, rebuild, reappearance, recheck, renew

29. 8) "number" prefixes (uni-/mono-, bi-/di-, tri-, … multi-/poly-);
L uni- ‘one’: unicycle G mono- mono-plane
L bi- ‘two’ : bilingual, bimonthly G di- dichotomy, -oxide
L tri- ‘three’ : triangle, tri-cycle
L quadr- ‘four’: quadrangle
G penta- five pentagon
G hexa- six hexagon -meter
L sept- ‘seven’: septangle, September
G octa- eight octagon, October
L nona- ‘nine’: nonagon G enne- nine ennead
L deci- ‘ten’: decimal G deca decagramme
L centi- ‘a hundred‘: centi-meter
G kilo- ‘thousand’: kilometer
L multi- ‘many’: multi-racial, G poly- poly-syllabic, -semy
L demi- ‘half ’: demi-circle, G hemi- hemisphere
semi semi-colonial, -weekly

30. 9) Conversion prefixes (a, be-, en- )
a- + verb – predicative verbs: asleep, await, aloud, alive
be- 1) +v.-ed– adj.: ‘wearing’ ’be surrounded by’: bespectacled, befogged,
2) intensify the force of the verb: becalm, bedazzle
3) +n. – vt. bewitch, befriend, bedevil
en- (em- before p,b,or m)’to put into’’provide with’: enslave, encage, empower, enrich, enable

31. 10) Miscellaneous category (auto-, extra-, neo-, paleo-, pan-, proto-, tele-, vice)
auto- ‘self ‘: automation, autobiography
extra- ‘exceptionally’: extraordinary, extralinguistic
neo- ‘new’’revived‘ : neo-realism, neology, neoclassic
paleo- ‘old’ ‘ancient’: paleo-olithic, paleobotany (古植物学)
pan- ‘all’’world-wide’: pan-African, pan-American
proto- ‘first’, ‘original’: protobiology(原生生物学), prototype
tele- ‘distant’: telescope, telecommunication, telesat
vice- ‘deputy‘:vice-president, vice-Chairman

32. 4.4 suffixation
Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base, and usually changing the word-class of the base;
boy n. -ish boyish adj.
BUT: boy n. +hood boyhood (an abstract n.)
Classification of suffixes: since suffixes usually change the word from one part of speech to another, it is convenient to classify them not only according to the word-class of the word they form (as noun-forming suffixes, adjective-forming suffixes, etc.), but also according to the kind of base to which they are typically added.
e.g. a de-verbal suffix: -able or-er is one that is typically added to verb; a de-adjectival suffix: -ize is added to an adjective : a de-nominal suffix like -hood is added to a noun.

33. A. Noun(-forming) suffixes
(1) 具有某种职业或动作的人
1)     -an, -ain, 表示"……地方的人，精通……的人” American, historian,
2)     -al, 表示"具有……职务的人" principal,
3)     -ant,-ent, 表示"……者” merchant, agent, servant, student,
4)     -ar, 表示"……的人” scholar, liar, peddler
5)     -ard, -art, 表示"做……的人” coward, laggard, braggart
6)     -arian, 表示"……派别的人， ……主义的人” humanitarian, vegetarian
7)     -ary, 表示"从事……的人" secretary, missionary
8)     -ant, 表示"具有……职责的人" candidate, graduate
9)     -ator, 表示"做……的人" educator, speculator(投机者)
10) -crat, 表示"某种政体，主义的支持者" democrat, bureaucrat
11) -ee, 表示"动作承受者" employee, examinee
12) -eer, 表示"从事于……人" engineer, volunteer
13) -er, 表示"从事某种职业的人, 某地区，地方的人" banker, observer, Londoner, villager

34. 14) -ese, 表示" ……国人，…..地方的人” Japanese, Canto
15) -ess, 表示"阴性人称名词， actress, hostess, manageress
16) -eur, 表示"……家” amateur, littérateur
17) -ian, 表示"……地方人，信仰…….教的人，从事……职业的人” Christian, physician(内科医生)， musician
18) -ician, 表示"……家，” electrician, magician, technician
19) -icist, 表示"……家，…….者,” physicist, phoneticist, technicist
20) -ic, 表示"……者，……师" mechanic, critic
21) -ie, 表示"爱，指小" dearie, auntie, lassie(小姑娘)
22) -ier, 表示"从事……职业” cavalier, clothier, brazier(黄铜匠)
23) -ine, ian, 表示"阴性人称" heroine, ballerina
24) -ist, 表示"从事……研究者， 信仰……主义者" pianist, communist, dentist, artist, chemist
25) -ive, 表示"动作者，行为者” native, captive
26) -logist, 表示“……学家" biologist, geologist(地质学家)
27) -or, 表示"……者" author, doctor, operator,
28) -ster, 表示"做…事情的人” youngster, gamester(赌徒)，songster

35. (2). 构成，具有抽象名词的含义
1)     -acy, 表示"性质，状态，境遇" accuracy, diplomacy
2)     -age, 表示"状态，行为，身份及其结果，总称" courage, storage, marriage
3)     -al, a) 表示"事物的动作，过程” refusal, arrival, survival, denial, approval
b) 表示具体的事物 manual, signal, editorial, journal
4)     -ance, -ence表示"性质，状况，行为，过程，总量，程度” endurance, importance, diligence, difference, obedience
5)     -ancy, -ency, 表示"性质，状态，行为，过程" frequency, urgency, efficiency,
6)     -bility, 表示"动作，性质，状态" possibility, feasibility,
7)     -craft, 表示"工艺，技巧” woodcraft, handicraft, statecraft（治国策）
8)     -cracy, 表示"统治，支配" bureaucracy, democracy
9)     -cy, 表示"性质，状态，职位，级别" bankruptcy(破产)，supremacy
10) -dom, 表示"等级，领域，状态" freedom, kingdom, wisdom

36. 11) -ery, -ry, 表示"行为，状态，习性" bravery, bribery, rivalry
12) -ety, 表示"性质，状态” variety, dubiety(怀疑)
13) -faction, -facture, 表示"作成，……化，作用" satisfaction, manufacture
14) -hood, 表示"资格，身份, 年纪，状态" childhood, manhood, falsehood
15) -ice, 表示"行为，性质，状态" notice, justice, service
16) -ine, 表示"带有抽象概念" medicine, discipline, famine
17) -ing, 表示"动作的过程，结果" building, writing, learning
18) -ion, -sion, -tion, -ation, -ition, 表示"行为的过程，结果，状况" action, solution, conclusion, destruction, expression, correction
19) -ise, 表示"性质，状态” exercise, merchandise(商业)
20) -ism, 表示"制度，主义，学说，信仰，行为" socialism, criticism, colloquialism, heroism
21) -ity, 表示"性质，状态，程度” purity, reality, ability, calamity

37. 22) -ment, 表示"行为，状态，过程，手段及其结果 treatment, movement, judgment, punishment, argument
23) -mony, 表示"动作的结果，状态" ceremony, testimony
24) -ness, 表示"性质，状态，程度" goodness, kindness, tiredness, friendliness
25) -or, -our, 表示"动作，性质，状态" favor, error,
26) -osity, 表示"动作，状态” curiosity
27) -ship, 表示"情况，性质，技巧，技能及身份，职业” hardship, membership, friendship
28) -th, 表示"动作，性质，过程，状态" depth, wealth, truth, length, growth
29) -tude, 表示"性质，状态，程度" latitude, altitude(海拔)
30) -ure, 表示"行为，结果" exposure, pressure, failure, procedure(手续)，
31) -y, 表示"行为的结果，状态，性质” glory, history, victory, inquiry

38. (3) 带有场所，地方的含义 (4) 带有学术，科技含义 1) -age, 表示"住所，地点" village, cottage
2)     -ary, 表示"住所，场地" library, granary (谷仓)
3)     -ery, ry, 表示"工作场所，饲养所，地点" laundry, nursery, surgery(手术室)
4)     -ory, 表示"工作场所，住处" factory, dormitory, laboratory, observatory
(4) 带有学术，科技含义
1)     -grapy, 表示"……学，写法” biography, calligraphy, geography
2)     -ic, ics, 表示"……学 " logic, mechanics, optics, electronics
3)     -ology, 表示"……学 ” biology, zoology, technology(工艺学)
4)     -nomy, 表示"……学……术" astronomy, economy, bionomy(生态学)
5)     -ery, 表示"学科，技术" chemistry, cookery, machinery
6)     -y, 表示"……学，术，法” photography, philosophy

39. (5) 表示人和事物的总和，集合含义
1)     -age, baggage, tonnage
2)     -dom, newspaperdom(新闻界)
3)     -hood, neighbourhood, womanhood
4)     -ery, cavalry, ministry(内阁)
5)     -ure, legislature, judicature
(6) 表示物品和物质名称的含义
1)     -ant, ent, solvent, constant
2)     -al, signal, pictorial(画报)
3)     ar, collar, pillar(石柱)
4)     - er, boiler, computer, washer, cooker
5)     -ery, drapery(绸缎)
6)     -ing, clothing, matting,
7)     -ment, instrument, equipment, attachment
(7) 表示“细小”的含义
1)     -etta, -ette, etto, cigarette, essayette(短文)
2)     -ling, duckling, weakling, hireling
3)     -let, booklet, pamphlet
4) -y, daddy, doggy, pussy

40. b. Adjective (forming) suffixes:
（1） 带有“属性，倾向，相关”的含义
1)     -able, -ible, movable, comfortable, applicable, visible, responsible
2)     -al, natural, additional, educational
3)     -ant, -ent, distant, important, excellent
4)     -ar, similar, popular, regular
5)     -ary, military, voluntary
6)     -ice, -atie, ical, politic, systematic, historic, physical,
7)     -ing, moving, touching, daring
8) -ish, foolish, bookish, selfish
9) -ive, active, impressive, decisive
10) -ory, satisfactory, compulsory

41. (4) 表示由某种物质形成，制成或生产的含义
(2) 表示“相象，类似”的含义
1)     -ish, boyish, childish
2)     -esque, picturesque
3)     -like, manlike, childlike
4)     -ly, manly, fatherly, scholarly, motherly
5)     -some, troublesome, handsome
6)     -y, milky, pasty
(3) 表示“充分的”含义
1)     -ful, beautiful, wonderful, helpful, truthful
2)     -ous, dangerous, generous, courageous, various
(4) 表示由某种物质形成，制成或生产的含义
1)     -en, wooden, golden, woolen
2)     -ous, gaseous
3)     -fic, scientific

42. (5) 表示方向的含义
1)     -ern, eastern, western
2)     -ward, downward, forward
(6) 表示“倍数”的含义
1)     -fold, twofold, tenfold
(7) 表示“数量关系”的含义
1)     -teen, thirteen
2)     -ty, fifty
3)     -th, fourth, fiftieth
(8) 表示国籍，语种，宗教的含义
1)     -an, Roman, European
2)     -ese, Chinese, Japanese
3)     -ish, English, Spanish
(9) 表示“比较程度”的含义
1)     -ish, reddish, yellowish
2)     -most, foremost, topmost
(10)其他的含义
-less, 表示否定，countless, stainless, wireless

43. c. Verb(-forming) suffixes:
1)     -ize, ise, 表示"做成，变成，……化“ modernize, mechanize, democratize, organize
2)     -en, 表示"使成为，引起，使有” quicken, weaken, soften, harden
3)     -fy, 表示"使……化, 使成” beautify, purify, intensify, signify, simplify
4)     -ate, 表示“成为……，处理，作用” separate, operate, indicate

44. d. Adverb (forming) suffixes:
1)     -ly, possibly, swiftly, simply
2)     -ward, -wards, downward, inwards, upward
3)     -wise, otherwise, clockwise, lengthwise,
education-wise(至于）, money-wise

45. Using this list of high frequency words:
White, Sowell, Yanagihara (1989)
Study of American Heritage Word Frequency Book (Carroll, Davies, Richmond, 1971)
Using this list of high frequency words:
Prefixes:
Un- alone accounts for 26% of the prefixed words.
Un-, re-, and in- (not) account for 51% of the total.
Un-, re-, in-, and dis- account for 58% of the total.
Suffixes:
-s, -es, ing, account for 65% of suffixed words.
Just 10 suffixes account for 85% of suffixed words-- -s, -es, -ing, -ly, -er, -ion, -able, -al, -y, -ness

46. Fill in the blanks with proper words. disappeared
1.My pen ____________. I cannot find it. (appear)
2.The book is on the top shelf. I’m not tall and I am ______ to reach it. (able)
3.It’s ___________ for him to catch the early bus, because he got up too late this morning. (possible)
4. __________________ leads to quarreling. (understand)
Fill in the blanks with proper words.
disappeared
unable
impossible
Misunderstanding

47. novelist encouragement beautiful carelessness
5.Miss Wang is a __________. She loves her job writing novels. (novel)
6.The teacher’s words were a great _________________ to him. (encourage)
7.Hangzhou is so ____________that it attracts many visitors. (beauty)
8. The accident happened because of his _____________. (care)
encouragement
beautiful
carelessness

48. Competition 超重的 overweight endlessly 不断地，无休止地 可接受的 acceptable
unemployment 失业
inconvenient
不方便的
anti-war
反战的
soundproof
隔音的
darken
使…变黑
supernatural
超自然的

49. 2. Differentiating suffixes
There are quite a number of differentiating suffixes which convey subtle nuances of meaning.
1) -ic , -ical
historic: notable or memorable in history.
e.g. a historic speech
economic: of economics, connected with commerce and industry.
e.g. economic policy
comic: of comedy, causing people to laugh
e.g s comic opera
historical: pertaining to history.
A historical novel/study
economical: not wasteful; careful in spending money, time,etc. and in the use of goods.
e.g. the car is economical to run
comical: slightly dero. and infml. amusing in an odd way
e.g. a comical old hat
Historic and historical are differentiated in usage, though their senses overlap. Historic refers to what is important in history:
the historic first voyage to outer space. It is also used of what is famous or interesting because of its association with persons or events in history:
a historic house.
Historical refers to whatever existed in the past, whether regarded as important or not:
a historical character. Historical refers also to anything concerned with history or the study of the past:
a historical novel;
historical discoveries.The differentiation between the words is not complete. They are often used interchangeably:
historic timesor historical times.

50. Politic : marked by prudence, expedience, and shrewdness; artful e. g
Politic : marked by prudence, expedience, and shrewdness; artful e.g. a politic behaviour
Political: Of, relating to, or dealing with the structure or affairs of government, politics, or the state, e.g. political reason
But: magic/ magical
poetic/poetical
There are other pairs of words with different meanings brought about by different suffixes, e.g.
Womanly -- having or showing the qualities suitable to a woman.
womanish-- usu. derog (of a man) like a woman in character, behavior, appearance
childlike/childish
(Also see p.56)

51. Continuance, continuation and continuity
-- all refer to the act or state of enduring or remaining in existence.
continuance-- enduring intransitively.
continuation-- implies resumption in a transitive sense.
continuity-- describe the state or quality of being continuous.
e.g.
The country has witnessed a ___________ of prosperity in the past five years.
______________ of study after the holiday was difficult at first.
There is no ___________between the two parts of his book.
continuance
Continuance is interchangeable with continuation in some of its senses. However, only continuance is used to refer to the duration of a state or condition, as in his continuance in office. Continuation applies especially to prolongation or resumption of action (a continuation of the meeting) or to physical extension (the continuation of the street). The continuation of a story is that part of the story following a break in its narration.
continuation
continuity