1. Chapter 2 Introduction to Systems Architecture

2. Chapter 2 Introduction to Systems Architecture
Automated Computation
Computer Capabilities
Computer Hardware
Computer System Classes
The Role of Software
Economics of System and Application Development Software
Computer Networks

3. History of computing hardware
Chapter Goals
Discuss the development of automated computing
Describe the general capabilities of a computer
Describe computer system components and their functions
List computer system classes and their distinguishing characteristics
Define the role and function of application and system software
Describe the economic role of system and application development software
Describe the components and functions of computer networks
History of computing hardware
First Generation
(Mechanical / Electromechanical)
Calculators
Antikythera mechanism, Difference engine, Norden bombsight
Programmable Devices
Jacquard loom, Analytical engine, Harvard Mark I, Z3
Second Generation
(Vacuum Tubes)
Atanasoff–Berry Computer, IBM 604, UNIVAC 60, UNIVAC 120
Colossus, ENIAC, Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, EDSAC, Manchester Mark 1, Ferranti Pegasus, Ferranti Mercury, CSIRAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 701, IBM 702, IBM 650, Z22
Third Generation
(Discrete transistors
and SSI, MSI,
LSI Integrated circuits)
Mainframes
IBM 7090, IBM 7080, IBM System/360, BUNCH
Minicomputer
PDP-8, PDP-11, IBM System/32, IBM System/36
Fourth Generation
(VLSI integrated circuits)
VAX, IBM System i
4-bit microcomputer
Intel 4004, Intel 4040
8-bit microcomputer
Intel 8008, Intel 8080, Motorola 6800, Motorola 6809, MOS Technology 6502, Zilog Z80
16-bit microcomputer
Intel 8088, Zilog Z8000, WDC 65816/65802
32-bit microcomputer
Intel 80386, Pentium, Motorola 68000, ARM architecture
64-bit microcomputer[32
Alpha, MIPS, PA-RISC, PowerPC, SPARC, x86-64
Embedded computer
Intel 8048, Intel 8051
Personal computer
Desktop computer, Home computer, Laptop computer, Personal digital assistant (PDA), Portable computer, Tablet PC, Wearable computer
Theoretical / experimental
Quantum computer, Chemical computer, DNA computing, Optical computer, Spintronics based computer

4. Systems Architecture
Describes structure, interaction, and technology of computer system components
Capabilities of a computer
Accept numeric inputs
Perform computational functions
Communicate results

5. Automated Computation
Mechanical
Early computers with limited capabilities
Electronic
Fast, accurate, reliable
Optical

6. Mechanical Implementation
Mechanical representation of a mathematical calculation
Limitations and shortcomings
Complex design and construction
Wear, breakdown, and maintenance of parts
Limits on operating speed

7. The Difference Engine 1821 Charles Babbage

8. Electronic Implementation
Stores numerical values as magnetic charges or by positioning electrical switches
Can convert physical movement into electrical signals, or vice versa
World War II – impetus for change
Faster, more reliable, easier to build than mechanical counterparts

9. Optical Implementation
Harnesses energy of a moving photon
Represents data as pulses of light stored directly or indirectly by materials that reflect or don’t reflect light
Now common in computer networks that cover large distances

10. Quantum Computing A new kind of computing based on quantum mechanics
Somewhat controversial
Not yet shown to be usable

11. Computer Capabilities
Processing
Storage
Communication

12. Processor Device that performs
data manipulation and transformation functions
Computation
Comparison
Data movement
memory
mass storage
input/output devices

13. Processor Terminology
Instructions
Programs
Processor types
General-purpose
Special-purpose
Formulas and algorithms
Comparisons and branching

14. A Formulaic Program 10 INPUT QUANTITY_SOLD 20 INPUT SELLING_PRICE
30 INTERMEDIATE_RESULT = QUANTITY_SOLD * SELLING_PRICE
40 GROSS_PROFIT = INTERMEDIATE_RESULT – SELLING_EXPENSES
50 OUTPUT GROSS PROFIT
60 END

15. An Algorithmic Program
10 INPUT INCOME
20 IF INCOME > THEN GOTO 50
30 TAX = INCOME * 0.10
40 GOTO 180
50 IF INCOME > THEN GOTO 80
60 TAX = ((INCOME – ) * 0.15)
70 GOTO 180
80 IF INCOME > THEN GOTO 110
90 TAX = ((INCOME – ) * 0.25)
100 GOTO 180
110 IF INCOME > THEN GOTO 140
120 TAX = ((INCOME – ) * 0.28)
130 GOTO 180
140 IF INCOME > THEN GOTO 170
150 TAX = ((INCOME – ) * 0.33)
160 GOTO 180
170 TAX = ((INCOME – ) * 0.35)
180 OUTPUT TAX
190 END

16. Storage Capacity Types of information to be stored
Intermediate processing results
Data
Programs
Characteristics of storage devices vary widely
Cost
Access speed
Reliability

17. Input/Output Capability
Must encompass many
communication modes
For humans:
Sound, text, and graphics
For other computers:
Electronic or optical communication

18. The Primary Functions of Computer Hardware

19. Components of a Computer System

20. Central Processing Unit
General-purpose processor
Executes all instructions
computation functions
comparison functions
Directs all data movement

21. Components of The Central Processing Unit

22. Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
CPU Components
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
Contains electrical circuits that implement each instruction
Registers
Internal storage locations that can each hold a single instruction or data item
Control unit
Controls movement of data to and from CPU
Accesses program instructions and issues appropriate commands to ALU

23. System Bus
Internal communication channel that connects all other hardware devices
Primary pathway for moving data and instructions among hardware components
Capacity is critical to performance, secondary storage, and I/O device performance

24. Primary Storage (Main Memory)
Holds program instructions and data for currently executing programs
Implemented with random access memory (RAM)
Provides access speed and allows CPU to read or write to specific memory locations
Volatile; does not provide permanent storage

25. Secondary Storage
Composed of high-capacity nonvolatile storage devices that hold:
Programs not currently being executed
Data not needed by currently executing programs
Data needed by currently executing programs that does not fit within available primary storage

26. Comparison of Storage Types

27. Input/Output Devices Implement external communication functions
Human-oriented communication devices (e.g., keyboard, mouse, printer)
Computer-oriented communication devices (e.g., modem, network interface unit)

28. Computer System Classes
Microcomputer
Meets information processing needs of single user
Midrange computer
Supports many programs and users simultaneously
Mainframe
Handles information processing needs of large number of users and applications
Designed for large amounts of data storage and access
Supercomputer
Designed for rapid mathematical computation

34. Multicomputer Configurations
Any organization of multiple computers to support a specific set of services or applications
Common configurations
Cluster
Blade
Grid

35. Cluster
Group of similar or identical computers that cooperate to provide services or execute a common application
Connected by high-speed network
Typically located close to one another
Advantages: scalability and fault tolerance
Disadvantages: complex configuration and administration

36. Blade
Circuit board that contains most of a server computer; a specialized cluster
Same advantages and disadvantages as a cluster, but also:
Concentrate more computing power in less space
Are simpler to modify

37. Grid
Group of dissimilar computer systems, connected by high-speed network, that cooperate to provide services or execute a common application
Computers may be in separate rooms, buildings, or continents
Computers work cooperatively at some times, independently at others

38. Bigger Isn’t Always Better
Grosch’s Law (1952) has been rewritten due to:
Multiple classes of computers
Expanded abilities to configure computers for specific purposes
Increased software costs relative to hardware costs
Large computer databases
Widespread adoption of graphical user interfaces
Multicomputer configurations

39. Business Computer Options “Do We Need A Mainframe?”
A business finds that its old IBM RS/6000 S70 Midrange computer is overloaded with work. The problem needs to be solved.
Options:
1: Purchase more RS/6000 systems,
used, since they are no longer made
2: Upgrade to IBM’s latest mainframes,
the pSeries 670 or 69 systems
3: Develop a scalable hardware platform
IBM blade servers
a cluster of IBM midrange systems

40. The Role of Software
Translates user requests into machine instructions
Performs complex translation process that bridges two gaps
Human language to machine language (binary)
High-level abstraction to low-level detail

41. The Role of Software

42. Software Types Application programs
Stored set of instructions for responding to a specific information-processing tasks
Used directly by end users
Utility programs
Contains instructions for performing general-purpose tasks
Usually operates invisibly in the background
System software
Implements utility functions needed by many application programs
Allocates computer resources to application programs
Manages computer resources
Does not interact with end users

43. System Layers

44. System Software Layers

45. Software/Hardware Layers

46. Operating Systems Most important system software component
Collection of utility programs that provides:
Administrative utilities
Utility services to application programs
Resource allocation functions
Direct control over hardware

47. Operating System Functions
Program storage, loading, and execution
File manipulation and access
Secondary storage management
Network and interactive user interfaces

48. Application Development Software
Programs used to develop other programs
Types
Program translators
Program editors
Debugging tools
System development tools

49. Economics of System and Application Development Software
System software consumes hardware resources
Cost per unit of computing power has rapidly decreased
Software is more cost-effective when reused many times

50. The Relative Cost of Hardware vs. Software

51. Intel CPUs and Microsoft Operating Systems
Software Depends on Hardware
Once hardware has been developed,
the capabilities of the software packages
can be increased to take advantage
of the hardware capabilities.
The development of the Intel microprocessors (from the to the Itanium) parallels
the development of Microsoft Windows and
the application software that it supports.
This comes from cooperation
between Intel and Microsoft.

52. Computer Networks
Set of hardware and software components that enable multiple users and computer systems to share information, software, and hardware resources
Enables many types of personal communication

53. Computer Networks

54. External Resources
Ability to share data, programs, and hardware resources among computers
Gives modern organizations flexibility to deploy and redeploy computing and information resources to satisfy rapidly changing needs

55. Network Software Finds requested resources on the network
Negotiates resource access with distant resource allocation software
Receives and delivers resources to requesting user or program
May also listen for and validate resource requests, and deliver resources via the network

56. Network Communication and the Physical Network
Network communication devices
Simpler than I/O devices; do not need to convert data represented electronically into another form
Must support communication at high speeds
Physical network
Complex combination of communication protocols, methods of data transmission, and network hardware devices

57. Summary Basic elements of computer system architecture Hardware
Software
Networks
Importance of knowing how all components of a computer system interrelate as well as their internal workings
Further Readings or Resources: See
for an up-to-date list of reference materials.

58. Chapter Goals Discuss the development of automated computing
Describe the general capabilities of a computer
Describe computer system components and their functions
List computer system classes and their distinguishing characteristics
Define the role and function of application and system software
Describe the economic role of system and application development software
Describe the components and functions of computer networks