1. 13
Development over the Life Span

2. Development Over the Life Span
From conception through the first year
Developmental psychologists
Study physiological and cognitive changes across the life span and how these are affected by a person’s genetic predispositions, culture, circumstances, and experiences
Socialization
The process by which children learn the rules and behavior expected of them by society

3. Conception thru the First Year LO13
Conception thru the First Year LO13.1 Outline the three stages of prenatal development, noting the hallmarks of each stage.
Prenatal development
Zygote: Single-celled egg
Embryo: Inner portion of egg
Fetus: An eight-week-old organism

4. Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13
Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.2 Describe six factors that can be harmful during a woman’s pregnancy.
Agents that cross the placenta
German measles
X-rays and other radiation
Sexually transmitted diseases
Cigarette smoking
Maternal stress
Drugs

5. Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13
Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.3 Describe some inborn abilities that infants have, and also some cultural influences on physical and psychological development.
Physical abilities
Newborn reflexes
Rooting
Sucking
Swallowing
Grasping

6. Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13
Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.3 Describe some inborn abilities that infants have, and also some cultural influences on physical and psychological development.
Perceptual abilities
Visual abilities
Quickly develops beyond initial range of eight inches.
Can distinguish contrasts, shadows, and edges.
Other senses
Hearing
Touch
Smell

7. Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13
Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.3 Describe some inborn abilities that infants have, and also some cultural influences on physical and psychological development.
Culture and maturation
Many aspects of development depend on customs
Differences in babies’ sleep arrangements reflect cultural and parental values.

8. Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13
Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.4 Discuss how contact comfort and separation anxiety contribute to feelings of attachment.
Attachment
A deep emotional bond that an infant develops with its primary caretaker.
Contact comfort
In primates, the innate pleasure derived from close physical contact.
The basis of the infant’s first attachment.
Tested using the Strange Situation procedure
A parent-infant “separation and reunion” procedure that is staged in a laboratory to test the security of a child’s attachment.

9. The rise and fall of separation anxiety
Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.4 Discuss how contact comfort and separation anxiety contribute to feelings of attachment.
The rise and fall of separation anxiety

10. Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13
Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.4 Discuss how contact comfort and separation anxiety contribute to feelings of attachment.
Secure
A parent-infant relationship in which the baby is secure when the parent is present, distressed by separation, and delighted by reunion.
Insecure
Types of attachment
A parent-infant relationship in which the baby clings to the parent, cries at separation, and reacts with anger or apathy to reunion.

11. Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13
Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.5 List four factors that contribute to insecure attachment.
What causes insecure attachment?
Abandonment and deprivation in the first year or two of life.
Parenting that is abusive, neglectful, or erratic because the parent is chronically irresponsible or clinically depressed.
The child’s own genetically influenced temperament.
Stressful circumstances in the child’s family.

12. Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13
Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.5 List four factors that contribute to insecure attachment.
Cognitive development
The development of language and thought from infancy throughout childhood is a marvel to anyone who has ever watch a baby grow up.

13. Cognitive Development LO13
Cognitive Development LO13.6 List the milestones of language development that occur between the first two months and six years of life.
Language development
Acquisition of speech begins in the first few months.
Infants are responsive to pitch, intensity, and sound.
By 4 to 6 months of age, children can recognize their names and other words regularly spoken.
By 6 to 12 months of age, children become familiar with the sound structure of their language.

14. Cognitive Development LO13
Cognitive Development LO13.6 List the milestones of language development that occur between the first two months and six years of life.
Language development, cont’
By 11 months, infants use symbolic gestures.
At about 12 months, infants use words to label objects.
Between 18 to 24 months, toddlers combine 2 to 3 words into telegraphic speech.

15. Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13
Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.7 Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, and explain the defining characteristics of each stage.
Thinking
According to Piaget, children’s minds constantly adapt to new situations and experiences.
Two adaptive processes
Assimilation: absorbing new information into existing cognitive structures.
Accommodation: modifying existing cognitive structures in response to new information.

16. Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13
Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.7 Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, and explain the defining characteristics of each stage.
Sensorimotor stage
Birth to 2 years
Infant learns through concrete actions: looking, touching, putting things in the mouth, sucking, grasping.
“Thinking” consists of coordinating sensory information with bodily movements.
Major accomplishment is object permanence.
The understanding that an object continues to exist even when you cannot see or touch it.

17. Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13
Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.7 Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, and explain the defining characteristics of each stage.
Preoperational stage
Ages 2 to 7
Children still lack the cognitive abilities necessary for understanding abstract principles.
Egocentric
Cannot grasp concept of conservation

18. Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13
Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.7 Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, and explain the defining characteristics of each stage.
Concrete operations
Ages 7 to 12
Children’s thinking is still grounded in concrete experiences and concepts, but they can now understand conservation, reversibility, and causation.

19. Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13
Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.7 Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, and explain the defining characteristics of each stage.
Formal operations stage
Ages 12 to adulthood
Teenagers are capable of abstract reasoning
Can compare and classify ideas
Can reason about situations not personally experienced
Can think about the future
Can search systematically for solutions

20. Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13
Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.8 Discuss four modifications of Piaget’s theory that have developed from research findings.
Current views
Cognitive abilities develop in continuous, overlapping waves rather than discrete steps or stages.
Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget thought.
Children, even infants, reveal cognitive abilities much earlier than Piaget believed possible.
Cognitive development is influenced by a child’s culture.

21. Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13
Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.8 Discuss four modifications of Piaget’s theory that have developed from research findings.
Testing infants’ knowledge
Infants look longer at objects that seem to violate physical laws than those that do not.
Surprise indicates their expectations were violated.
They must know what is physically plausible for this to occur.

22. Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13
Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.8 Discuss four modifications of Piaget’s theory that have developed from research findings.
Vygotsky’s Theory of Sociocultural Influences
Children develop mental representations of the world through culture and language, and that adults play a major role in their children’s development by constantly guiding and teaching them.

23. Moral Development LO13.9 Discuss the evidence for and against the proposition that moral development occurs in distinct stages over time.
Moral development: Kohlberg’s theory
Children’s ability to understand right from wrong evolved along with the rest of their cognitive abilities.
Progresses through three levels:
Young children obey for fear of being punished
At age 10, moral judgments shift to loyalty
In adulthood, moral standards are developed

24. Moral Development LO13.9 Discuss the evidence for and against the proposition that moral development occurs in distinct stages over time.
Current views
The child’s emerging ability to understand right from wrong, and to behave accordingly, depends on the emergence of conscience and moral emotions such as shame, guilt, and empathy.
Some researchers suggest that the capacity for understanding right from wrong, like that for language, is inborn.
Many researchers are seeking a middle ground by studying gene-environment interactions.

25. Moral Development, cont’ LO13
Moral Development, cont’ LO13.10 Compare the ways in which power assertion, inductive appeals, self-regulation, and conscience contribute to moral development.
Getting children to be good
Power assertion
A method of child rearing in which the parent uses punishment and authority to correct the child’s misbehavior.
Induction
A method of child rearing in which the parent appeals to the child’s own abilities, sense of responsibility, and feelings for others in correcting the child’s misbehavior.

26. Moral Development, cont’ LO13
Moral Development, cont’ LO13.10 Compare the ways in which power assertion, inductive appeals, self-regulation, and conscience contribute to moral development.
Self-control and conscience
Learn to delay gratification
This ability allows a child to control negative emotions, pay attention to the task at hand, and do well in school, from kindergarten to college.

27. Gender Development LO13.11 Distinguish between biological sex, gender identity, gender typing, and intersex conditions.
Gender Development
Gender identity: The fundamental sense of being male or female; it is independent of whether the person conforms to the social and cultural rules of gender.
Gender typing: Process by which children learn the abilities, interests, and behaviors associated with being masculine or feminine in their culture.
Intersex conditions: Conditions in which chromosomal or hormonal anomalies cause a child to be born with ambiguous genitals, or genitals that conflict with the infant’s chromosomes.

28. Gender Development, cont’ LO13
Gender Development, cont’ LO13.12 Summarize the basic findings regarding biological, cognitive, and learning influences on gender identity and gender typing.
Influences on gender development
Biological factors: Biological researchers believe that early play and toy preferences have a basis in prenatal hormones, genes, or brain organization.
Cognitive factors: Cognitive psychologists suggest that toy preferences are based on gender schemas, or the mental network of knowledge, beliefs, metaphors, and expectations about what it means to be male or female.
Learning factors: Gender-appropriate play may be reinforced by parents, teachers, and peers.

29. Gender Development, cont’ LO13
Gender Development, cont’ LO13.12 Summarize the basic findings regarding biological, cognitive, and learning influences on gender identity and gender typing.
Gender schema:
A cognitive schema (mental network) of knowledge, beliefs,metaphors, and expectations about what it means to be male or female.

30. Adolescence LO13.13 Outline the physiological changes that girls and boys experience during adolescence.
The physiology of adolescence
Until puberty, boys and girls produce roughly the same levels of androgens and estrogens.
The onset of puberty depends on both biological and environmental factors.
The onset and length of puberty vary considerably.

31. Adolescence, cont’ LO13.14 Outline the psychological and behavior changes that girls and boys experience during adolescence.
Adolescence
Period of life from puberty until adulthood.
Adrenarche: A time in middle childhood when the adrenal glands begin producing the adrenal hormone DHEA and other hormones that affect cognitive and social development.
Puberty: The age at which a person becomes capable of sexual reproduction.
Menarche: The onset of menstruation during puberty.

32. Adolescence, cont’ LO13.14 Outline the psychological and behavior changes that girls and boys experience during adolescence.
Timing of puberty
Onset of puberty depends on biological and environmental factors.
Early vs. late onset
Early-maturing boys have more positive views of their bodies and are more likely to smoke, binge drink, and break the law.
Early-maturing girls are usually socially popular but also regarded by peer group as precocious and sexually active. They are more likely to fight with parents, drop out of school, and have a negative body image.

33. Adolescence, cont’ LO13.14 Outline the psychological and behavior changes that girls and boys experience during adolescence.
Adolescence: Media perception and reality
The rate of violent crimes committed by adolescents has been dropping steadily since 1993.
Narcissism is on the rise.
According to the National Youth Risk Behavior Survey, today’s teenagers are more sexually conservative than their parents were at their age.

34. Adolescence, cont’ LO13.14 Outline the psychological and behavior changes that girls and boys experience during adolescence.
Areas of adolescent turmoil
Conflict with parents
Mood swings or depression
Higher rates of reckless, rule-breaking, and risky behavior

35. Adolescence, cont’ LO13.14 Outline the psychological and behavior changes that girls and boys experience during adolescence.
Adulthood
Many philosophers, writers, and scientists have speculated on the course of adult development. Are the changes of adulthood predictable, like in childhood?

36. Adulthood LO13.15 List the eight “crises” of development proposed by Erik Erikson.
Erikson’s eight stages
Trust vs. mistrust
Infancy (birth–age 1)
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Toddler (ages 1–2)
Initiative vs. guilt
Preschool (ages 3–5)
Competence vs. inferiority
Elementary school (ages 6–12)
Identity vs. role confusion
Adolescence (ages 13–19)
Intimacy vs. isolation
Young adulthood (ages 20–40)
Generativity vs. stagnation
Middle adulthood (ages 40–65)
Ego integrity vs. despair
Late adulthood (ages 65 and older)

37. Adulthood LO13.15 List the eight “crises” of development proposed by Erik Erikson.
Adult development
Psychological concerns can occur at any time in life, therefore stage theories are no longer used to understand how adults change or stay the same.
Adult development is an ongoing process.

38. Adulthood, cont’ LO13.16 Outline the psychological and behavioral changes that women and men experience as they progress through emerging adulthood and middle age.
The transitions of life
Emerging adulthood (ages 18–25)
Phase of life distinct from adolescence and adulthood
In some ways an adult, in some ways not
The middle years (ages 35–65)
Perceived by many as the prime of life
Menopause
The cessation of menstruation and of the production of ova; it is usually a gradual process lasting up to several years

39. Old Age LO13.17 Summarize the findings regarding declines or improvements in areas of cognitive functioning as people age.
After roughly age 65, adults start scoring lower on tests of reasoning, spatial ability, and complex problem solving
It takes them longer to retrieve words and names, dates, and other information
Speed of cognitive processing in general slows down
Older people vary in this respect, with some declining significantly and others remaining sharp

40. Old Age, cont’ LO13.18 Distinguish between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence, and note how each type is affected with advancing age.
Some types of thinking change, others stay the same.
Fluid intelligence: the capacity for deductive reasoning and the ability to use new information to solve problems; relatively independent of education, declines in old age.
Crystallized intelligence: cognitive skills and specific knowledge of information acquired over a lifetime; depends heavily on education, remains stable over lifetime.

41. Old Age, cont’ LO13.18 Distinguish between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence, and note how each type is affected with advancing age.
Apparent senility is often caused by malnutrition, prescription medications, harmful combinations of medications, and over-the-counter drugs.
Depression and passivity may result from the loss of meaningful activity, intellectual stimulation, goals to pursue, and control over events.
Weakness, frailty, and even many of the diseases associated with old age are often caused by sedentary lifestyles.

42. The Wellsprings of Resilience LO13
The Wellsprings of Resilience LO13.19 Describe the factors that make most children resilient in the face of adversity, and comment on whether early childhood trauma foretells later adult maladjustment.
Are adults prisoners of childhood?
Research psychologists have questioned the psychodynamic assumption that childhood traumas have emotional effects that inevitably continue into adulthood.
Considerable evidence disputes this claim.

43. The Wellsprings of Resilience LO13
The Wellsprings of Resilience LO13.19 Describe the factors that make most children resilient in the face of adversity, and comment on whether early childhood trauma foretells later adult maladjustment.
Challenging our assumptions
Overcome effects of war, childhood illness, abusive or alcoholic parents, early deprivation, or being sexually molested.