1. The
Almoravid
and
Almohad
Empires
Economy and Government

2. Economy and Government
Almoravid – Almohad eras (11th-13th C.): political upheaval, warfare
Affected economic life: trade (regional, international) and production (rural, urban)
But not equally across empires: Ifriqiya and al-Andalusia most badly affected

3. Economy and Government
With problems being warfare Christians northern al-Andalus and Banu Hilal (Fatimid Egyptians) in east. . .
Morocco most able to withstand -- centre of Empires
[Bennison] Morocco became economic as well as political centre of Almoravisds, Almohads

4. Economy and Government
Video (“Almoravid & Almohad Empires”)
Emphasized trade of Sijilmasssa and Marrakesh -- international; industry of Fez (leather)
But: what was not mentioned was that Morocco sat in the middle of much large network linking al-Andalusia to Ifriqiya to Egypt – and beyond [focus of ‘Discussion Class’: see Bennison ]

5. Economy and Government
Heart of economy in Rural areas:
Wide range of land management regulated by Islamic Law: not feudal ownership as in Europe
Caliph had right to much land, all ‘sub-soil’ minerals (including water): good distribute
Other: religious (waqf); community; private (minimal)

6. Economy and Government
Sanhaja (Almoravids): desert people, pastoralists, oasis cultivators
Masmuda (Almohads): mountain people – terraced, irrigated agriculture, small stock animal husbandry (seasonal migration)
Ifriqiya Berbers (Fatimids, conquered by Almohads): Mediterranean plains (fruit, grain cultivators; small-stock animals)

7. Economy and Government
Crops:
Maghreb plains, southern al-Andalus: cereals - millet, wheat, barley in Maghreb - high-quality rice (introduced from India via Muslim networks) in al-Andalus
Fruits: climate in both regions equally suited - olives, figs, grapes - dates (in desert-edge oases of Maghreb)

8. Economy and Government
Crops: Sugar Cane
Introduced by Muslims across these Empires
Found in al-Andalus mid-8th c., in Maghreb by end of 9th c.
Especially high quality grew in Sus (south of Atlas Mts) Morocco: produced with slave labour

9. Economy and Government
Crops: Silk, flax, cotton
supported important textile industries
Especially important: Silk worm from Syria
introduced by Muslims to al-Andalusia, Ifriqiya
“very fine quality”

10. Economy and Government
Agricultural Technology: irrigation
Many of these crops, so important to rural economy (and urban industry, see below) required irrigation
“Hydraulic engineering and the social dispersal of water” was crucial to the management of the rural economy [Bennison]

11. Economy and Government
Water Irrigation Systems:
Muslims developed sophisticated sysems of water irrigation
Some ‘left’ (and built on) from early Romans
But many imported from Persia – underground channels [qanats], canals, aqueducts feeding into cisterns, reservoirs; use of water wheels

12. Economy and Government
Bennison:
“It is still possible to see the remains of vertical wells that drew water from qanats in the landscape west of the Ziz Valley [the rich oasis area the Almoravids moved into, see earlier lecture] where Sijilmassa was located”
[see Video ‘Almoravids & Almohads’ – segment on Berber irrigation]

13. Economy and Government
Irrigation systems: ranged from
Large systems, covering whole regions, often using water wheels, to. . .
Medium-sized systems, usually for terraced (hillside, mountain) fields, gardens to . . .
Small-sized, usually one farm/family (any region)

14. Economy and Government
Key Issue: distribution of water
Regulated by combination: customary practice/tradition and Islamic Law
‘Law’: water use determined by priorities – drinking and ablutions (washing before prayer); farming (irrigation); industry (milling, tanning, mining)

15. Economy and Government
Problems: Most often caused by ‘where’ people lived on river -- ‘upstream’ vs ‘downstream’
complicated by development of new irrigation systems interrupting availability of water
Qadi’s (Islamic Judges) required: “Maliki fatwas (opinions) of this kind were much more relevant to their [rural people’s] lives than theological or doctrinal issues” [Bennison]

16. Economy and Government
Pastoralism, Stock-keeping: domestic, commercial
Most people kept chickens, goats, sheep, working/transport animals (donkeys, oxen)
Military ‘cavalry’: needed horses, camels
Animals also supplied: skins (leather), wool (sheep), camel hair (for tents, ropes)

17. Economy and Government
Pastoralists: key factor in historiographical debate
Ifriqiya: with arrival of Banu Hilal Arabs, urbanisation declined, trade became more local
Historians believed that ‘pastoralist conquerors caused this’ [destruction]: now realized that decline of urban society more symptom of larger economic change than role of pastoralists [e.g. al-Andalus]

18. Economy and Government
Role of Mining:
Iron, copper, silver found in many parts of empires; antimony mine central Maghreb [frequently mentioned in Discussion Docs]
Salt: key to trans-Saharan trade – element in early Almoravid rivalries, source of ‘myths’ salt castles, slave workers…(al-Bakri)

19. Economy and Government
Source of Gov’t Revenue:
Islamic Law gave rulers rights to ‘all that lay beneath the ground’
1/5 taxation on all trade from mines: strongly enforced – with army if necessary
Salt of Sahara later drew Moroccans back across Sahara to conquer African empire of Mali

20. Economy and Government
Processing:
while much produce consumed locally/regionally,
Others like sugar cane, hides, minerals, timber had to be transported ‘somewhere else’ for processing
led to rise of urban industry, manufacturing: [video segment on Fez and leather manufacturing – drew on 12th c. account Bennison reproduces p. 194]

21. Economy and Government
Bennison reiterates point: description could apply to many Andalusian and Maghrebian cities
Highlights significant shift in local manufacturing: beginning Almoravid empire most ‘towns’ were markets along trade routes moving goods between sub-Saharan Africa, al-Andalus, Ifriqiya, East
Few ‘manufacturing complexes’; no Marrakesh

22. Economy and Government
Cities of Andalusia: thriving manufacturing centres for centuries
swords, armor, weapons, fine leather, embroidered silks, woolens, rugs, bookspaper, processed agricultural goods (olive oils, honey) …
Rise of Maghreb: al-Andalus became ‘province’ rather than Imperial Metropole: manufacturing moved south to Fez, Rabat-Sale, Marrakesh

23. Economy and Government
Almoravids and Almohads recruited master craftsmen from al-Andalus: carpenters, builders, engravers, marble carvers
In al-Andalus: pressure by Christians in north pushed Muslim economic centres towards south: America in particular flourished in 11th-century
[note frequency of mention in Discussion Documents]

24. Economy and Government
Role of Government: provide environment for safe and pious life – must be able to live as good Muslim
substantial military force, overseeing of market place, adjudication commercial disputes by judges
Source of gifts, charity to poor, ulama
‘circulate benefits of power’ to elite which was usually tax exempt [point discussed in Hoyland]

25. Economy and Government
“Extractive Machine” :
Bureaucracy to gather revenues, store them, disperse them appropriately
makhzam : term for government meaning ‘storehouse’ – state was tax collector, landowner, coin-producer, trader, agricultural developer

26. Economy and Government
Taxes: determined by Islamic Law [Bennison lists, explains p.210]
e.g. ‘alms’, 1/10 ‘in kind’ (cereals, other produce that could be paid/stored in kind), taxes on conquered land held by non-Muslims, poll tax on non-Muslims, 1/5 war booty and mineral extraction
Also several controversial ‘customs’ taxes: became central issue lat 12th c. [Bennison p.210; also Discussion Docs]

27. Economy and Government
also disputes over what was/was not ‘licit’ taxation on Agricultural produce
Al-Andalusia: Ta’ifa Princes exercising excessive taxation, including taxing Muslims: had been central factor in appeal to Almoravids
Almoravids responded: promised only ‘legal’ (canonical) taxes

28. Economy and Government
But taxation principal source of Revenue:
Even Almoravids forced to re-introduce non-canonical taxes to fund perpetual battles against Almohads in Maghreb and Christians in al-Andulusia
contributed to downfall

29. Economy and Government
Almohads made similar assertions, promises
their definition of ‘legal’ was broader: moved away from strict Maliki law towards Mahdism
But still forced to exceed ‘promises’: taxation remained central controversial factor in empire

30. Economy and Government
Administration: Almoravids
drew heavily on Andalusian officials even in Maghreb: one system from Cordoba to Sijilmassa
Countered role of Sanhaja chiefs: they retained local political, military duties but
Financial affairs in hands of appointed ‘overseer’ usually of Andalusian origin

31. Economy and Government
Land Grants:
Sanhaja chiefs benefited mostly from land grants: given usufruct rights – not inheritable
He (or she) usually engaged their own tax collectors
allowed Rulers to manage land at no cost while co-opting support

32. Economy and Government
not as common in Maghreb as al-Andalusia but evidence shows Almoravids used system to reward military commanders
Example given of Yusuf b. Tashfin: augmented army with Saharan trives (c.1077): granted them ‘provinces’ – lands in newly conquered areas Tlemcen, Fez

33. Economy and Government
another example: Ta’ifa Princes from Seville, Granada who were ‘exiled’ to Aghmat: may have been allocated estates to support themselves
Al-Andalus: when Almoravids moved into region, ousted Ta’ifs (as above): promised their own emirs land grants
Also sold off land for benefit of public treasury

34. Economy and Government
Example of Almoravids paying cavalry:
account shows they were paid ‘5 dinars/month plus expenses plus fodder for their mounts
But those who showed ‘nobility and courage’ were also rewarded with control of land and its revenues’ [land grants’

35. Economy and Government
Almohad Administration: similar but more centralized
Circulated upper administrative posts (e.g. governorships) to reduce emergence provincial autonomy
Led to failure to remit full revenue to government

36. Economy and Government
example: abd al-Mu’min did full census of North African territories to increase taxes
Everyone had to pay extra tax on 2/3 of their productive land [irrespective as to whether it was being used]
‘team’ officials dealt with tax collection: unclear if Almohads retained use of official ‘overseer’

37. Economy and Government
‘audits’ frequent: caused much concern among those who attempted to siphoned off revenues meant for Marrakesh
example of Historian who served as secretary to Yacub al-Mansour: managed some government revenues, royal lands in Seville area
New governor appointed: audit undertaken

38. Economy and Government
historian accused of retaining revenues for himself (and his son): summoned to Marrakesh
Chronicle describes treatment on arrival [Bennison p.215]: all the loads he was bringing (for al-Mansour), all his own things – personal affects, records, money – taken from him
Imprisoned for three days before being found ‘innocent’ and released

39. Economy and Government
Bennison’s point:
Story underscores how easily Caliph could and would appropriate goods
Also included land grants themselves: fact that ‘state’ technically owned so much (according to Islamic Law) gave it the power to retake what it distributed more or less at will

40. Economy and Government
Almohads: also used land-grant system
Example given of Almohads using land grants to recruit soldiers from East: offered both land and monthly (as opposed to usual quarterly) salaries
more centralized administration meant more control, quicker ‘appropriation’

41. Economy and Government
Coinage: among of currency circulating controlled directly by state
particular to Almoravids (and lesser extent Almohads) was access to Sub-Saharan gold [see video segment in Marrakesh bank vault]
Almoravids began minting gold dinars following conquests of Sijilmassa and Awdaghust [sample shown in video]

42. Economy and Government
minting ‘took off’ under Ibn Tashfin: authorized striking of dinars in Aghmat, later in Marrakesh, Fez, Tlemcen andNul Lamta
Bennison points out: ‘this was in stark contrast to previous Umayyad and Fatimid states’

43. Economy and Government
1096 also began to mint coins in Seville
In first decade Ali b. Yusuf’s reign:minting of al-Andalusia dinars peaked – ‘greatly more than production in Maghreb’
Why? North Africa more ‘transit-oriented’, al-Andalusia more ‘import-export’ oriented [Explanation: in context of Discussion Documents]

44. Economy and Government
Almoravid dinars: ‘percolated throughout the Mediterranean world’
Also ‘most widely used and copied gold currency in Muslim and Christian areas’ [video mention dinar use in ‘London and China’ – might well have been copies]
in currency system: supplemented by smaller silver, copper coins ‘for everyday use’

45. Economy and Government
Almohads
Also minted gold dinars but in much lower quantities – at peak less than half of Almoravid average output
Leads Bennison to speculate that chronicles referring to salaries in terms of dinars may be using them as measure, that actual payment took place with dirhams – silver coins [again, see video segment on coinage]

46. Economy and Government
Silver Coinage Marked Significant Change:
suggesting that Almohads did not have as easy an access to Sudanese (sub-Saharan) gold as Almoravids had
Sanhaja tribes continued to oppose Almohads on Saharan fringes of empire, affecting ability to successfully carry out trans-Saharan trade

47. Economy and Government
‘Fair Markets’:
Bennison also speaks to state interest in, duty to, ensure markets functioned according to Islamic law: attracted commerce, raised tax revenue
Describes number “market frauds” that could be contemporary (mixing poorer quality grain/flour with better quality; disguising cuts of meat etc)

48. Economy and Government
Agricultural Research and Development:
Interest in improving agriculture (including tree crops) came from al-Andalusia [here video incorrect in describing ‘gardens’ as reflecting desert Berber life]
began with Umayyads, spread even under Ta’ifa Princes: established gardens, estates, orchards around provincial capitals

49. Economy and Government
Purpose to improve soil conditions, create better fruit trees, develop grafting techniques …. So on
“Agricultural Revolution”: continued throughout Almoravid and Almohad eras
Seville main centre but similar developments in Maghreb: projects outside of Marrakesh

50. Economy and Government
Almohads:
invested significantly in new set of irrigated estates: baha’is
term usually means pool, lake: Almohad context meant both constructed resevoirs and entire irrigated orchard zone (olives, fruit trees)

51. Economy and Government
One or more such estates established outside almost every Almohad city: Marrakesh, Fez, Meknes, Seville
Seville: had at least 3
One of Marrakesh estates still exists: Menara (olive gardens, ‘endless’ citrus groves) [this is what is seen in video]

52. Economy and Government
Purpose of bahayra: [video romanticizes]
Primarily economic, agricultural ‘experimentation’: innovation for empire
Also used for army: provisions; place for soldiers to camp and water animals when mobilizing
Luxury residences for Caliph, princes, royal ‘elite’

53. Economy and Government
Concluding comments: 11th – 13th c. saw stability and change
Basic sectors remained the same (agriculture, pastoralism, manufacturing, trade) but changed in different ways
Encouragement of large trading ‘zones’ from al-Andalus across Maghreb led to rise new centres (Marrakesh) and revival, expansion older ones (America)

54. Economy and Government
“Vigorous urban network across entire Islamic West”: manufacturing, trade flourished – supported cultural ‘flowering’ (arts, architecture)
Taxation regularized but also increased: strongly felt in rural areas, may have helped generate perpetual tribal rebellions
Repeated cycles war, rebellion: impoverished some communities, encouraged rise pastoralism

55. Economy and Government
Role/development of International trade and commerce: topic of Discussion Class March 17
[in addition, see Bennison pp. 197 – 209]