1. Introduction: Evolution and the Foundations of Biology1
Introduction: Evolution and the Foundations of Biology

2. Overview: Inquiring About Life
An organism’s adaptations (fit) to its environment are the result of evolution
For example, a beach mouse’s light, dappled fur acts as camouflage, allowing the mouse to blend into its surroundings
Inland mice of the same species are darker in color, matching their surroundings
Evolution is the process of change that has transformed life on Earth
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3. Concept 1.1: The study of life reveals common themes
Biology: study (ology) of living things (bios)
To organize and make sense of all the information encountered in biology, focus on a few big ideas
These 5 unifying themes help to organize biological information:
Organization
Information
Energy and Matter
Interactions
Evolution
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4. Figure 1.3
Theme: Emergent Properties at Successive Levels of Biological Organization 4
Tissues
10 The
Biosphere 9
Ecosystems
5 Organs 8
Communities 3
Cells 1
Mole-
cules
Figure 1.3 Exploring levels of biological organization 6
Organ-
isms
2 Organell-es 7
Populations
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5. Emergent Properties All living things are complex and highly ordered
Each level builds in complexity on the levels below it
With each step becoming more complex, new properties emerge that were not previously present
Called emergent properties : “an organism is a living whole greater than the sum of its parts”
E.g. if the brain is injured, the whole organism will be affected, not just the brain
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6. Structure and Function
At each level of the biological hierarchy we find a correlation between structure and function
Analyzing a biological structure can give clues about what it does and how it works
“Form Fits Function”
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7. The Cell: An Organism’s Basic Unit of Structure and Function
Cell: lowest level capable of performing all activities of life
All living organisms are made of cells: bounded by a plasma membrane (cell membrane) and cytoplasm
Unicellular: bacteria, protists
Multicellular: plants, fungi, animals
The 2 main forms of cells are prokaryotic and eukaryotic
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8. Prokaryotic cells: lack a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles
Primitive, oldest cells
Found in domains Bacteria and Archae
Smaller on size
Contains loose DNA (not in a nucleus)
All have tough external walls
Eukaryotic cell: contains membrane-enclosed nucleus (with DNA) & membrane-enclosed organelles
Newer cells
Found in domain Eukarya
Larger cells
Not all eukaryotes have a cell wall
Plants have a cell wall
Animals do not
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9. Life’s Processes Involve the Expression and Transmission of Genetic Information
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is packaged in the form of chromosomes
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10. DNA, the Genetic Material
A DNA molecule holds hundreds or thousands of genes, each a stretch of DNA along the chromosome
Genes are the units of inheritance that transmit information from parents to offspring
As cells grow and divide, the genetic information encoded by DNA directs their development
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11. DNA molecule: 2 long strands in a double helix
Figure 1.7
Nucleus A
DNA C
Nucleotide T
Cell A
DNA molecule: 2 long strands in a double helix
Each link: 1 of 4 kinds of chemical building blocks called nucleotides, abbreviated A, T, C, and G T A C C G T
Figure 1.7 DNA: The genetic material A G T A
(a) DNA double helix
(b) Single strand of DNA
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12. DNA is blueprint for making proteins, which build & maintain a cell
Figure 1.8
(b) A lens cell uses information in DNA to make crystallin proteins.
Crystallin gene
(a) Lens cells are tightly packed with transparent proteins called crystallin.
Lens
cell
A C C A A A C C G A G T
DNA
T G G T T T G G C T C A
DNA is blueprint for making proteins, which build & maintain a cell
Genes/DNA--RNA-- protein
Gene expression is the process of converting information from gene to cellular product/protein
TRANSCRIPTION
mRNA
U G G U U U G G C U C A
TRANSLATION
Chain of amino
acids
Figure 1.8 Gene expression: Cells use information encoded in a gene to synthesize a functional protein
PROTEIN FOLDING
Protein
Crystallin protein
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13. Genomics: Large-Scale Analysis of DNA Sequences
An organism’s genome is its entire set of genetic instructions
Genomics is the study of sets of genes within and between species
Proteomics refers to the study of sets of proteins and their properties
The entire set of proteins expressed by a cell or group of cells is called a proteome
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14. Life Requires the Transfer and Transformation of Energy and Matter
What makes life possible?
Input of energy, mainly from the sun
Transformation of energy from one form to another
Plants/other photosynthetic organisms convert the energy of sunlight into the chemical energy of sugars
The chemical energy of these producers is then passed to consumers that feed on the producers
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15. Organisms Interact with Other Organisms and the Physical Environment
Every organism interacts with other organisms and with physical factors in its environment
Both organisms and their environments are affected by the interactions between them
Interactions between organisms include those that benefit both organisms and those in which both organisms are harmed
Interactions affect individual organisms and the way that populations evolve over time
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16. ENERGY FLOW Chemicals pass to organisms that eat the plants. I C A L C
Figure 1.9
ENERGY FLOW
Chemicals
pass to
organisms
that eat the
plants. I C A L C Y H E M C L I N C G
Light
energy
comes
from the
sun.
Plants
convert
sunlight to
chemical
energy.
Heat is lost
from the
ecosystem.
Organisms use
chemical energy to
do work.
Plants take up
chemicals
from the soil
and air.
Decomposers
return
chemicals to
the soil.
Figure 1.9 Energy flow and chemical cycling
Chemicals
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17. Scientists calculate that the CO2 that human activities have added to the atmosphere has increased the average temperature of the planet by 1°C since 1900
Climate change is a directional change in global climate that lasts three decades or more
Climate change has already affected organisms and their habitats all over the planet
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18. The Core Theme: Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life
Evolution makes sense of everything we know about living organisms
Evolution explains patterns of unity and diversity in living organisms
Similar traits among organisms are explained by descent from common ancestors
Differences among organisms are explained by the accumulation of heritable changes
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19. Classifying the Diversity of Life
Taxonomy: branch of biology that identifies, names, and classifies organisms; 8 taxons
Ranked from most general to most specific
Domain….Kingdom….Phylum….Class…..Order……Family….Genus…..Species
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20. Domains Bacteria and Archaea: unicellular prokaryotes
3 Domain System:
Domains Bacteria and Archaea: unicellular prokaryotes
Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotic organisms
Domain Eukarya: 1 unicellular eukaryotic group: Protista & 3 multicellular eukaryotic kingdoms:
Plantae: produce their own food by photosynthesis
Fungi: absorb nutrients
Animalia: ingest their food
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21. (a) Domain Bacteria (b) Domain Archaea 2 m 2 m (c) Domain Eukarya
Figure 1.12
(a) Domain Bacteria
(b) Domain Archaea
2 m
2 m
(c) Domain Eukarya
Kingdom
Animalia
100 m
Figure 1.12 The three domains of life
Kingdom
Plantae
Kingdom Fungi
Protists
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22. Unity in the Diversity of Life
A striking unity underlies the diversity of life
Universal genetic code:
All living things need DNA to reproduce
All DNA has same 4 nitrogenous bases; A, T, C and G
Similarities of cell structure
Flagella of protozoa (protist) and mammalian sperm
Cilia of paramecium (protist) and cilia in human lungs
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23. Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection
Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection in 1859
Darwin made two main points
Species showed evidence of “descent with modification” from common ancestors
Natural selection is the mechanism behind “descent with modification”
Darwin’s theory captured the duality of unity and diversity
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24. Figure 1.14 Charles Darwin as a young man
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25. European robin American flamingo Gentoo penguin Figure 1.15
Figure 1.15 Unity and diversity among birds
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26. Species generally suit their environment
Darwin observed that
Individuals in a population vary in their traits, many of which are heritable
More offspring are produced than survive, and competition is inevitable
Species generally suit their environment
Darwin inferred that
Individuals that are best suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce
Over time, more individuals in a population will have the advantageous traits
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27. Darwin called this process natural selection
Figure 1.16-s4
In other words, the environment “selects” for the propagation of beneficial traits
Darwin called this process natural selection
Population with
varied inherited
traits
Elimination of
individuals with
certain traits
Reproduction
of survivors
Increased
frequency
of traits that
enhance
survival
Figure 1.16-s4 Natural selection (step 4)
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28. The Tree of Life
The forelimb of a human, foreleg of a horse, flipper of a whale, and wing of a bat all share a common skeletal architecture
The shared anatomy of mammalian limbs reflects inheritance of a limb structure from a common ancestor (Homology)
The diversity of mammalian limbs results from modification by natural selection over millions of years
Darwin proposed that natural selection could cause an ancestral species to give rise to two or more descendent species
For example, the finch species of the Galápagos Islands are descended from a common ancestor
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29. Figure 1.17
Green warbler finch
Certhidea olivacea
(insect-eater)
Vegetarian finch
Platyspiza crassirostris
(fruit-eater)
ANCESTRAL
FINCH
Woodpecker finch
Camarhynchus pallidus
(insect-eater)
Evolutionary relationships are illustrated with treelike diagrams that show ancestors and their descendants
Small tree finch
Camarhynchus parvulus
(insect-eater)
Common cactus finch
Geospiza scandens
(cactus-eater)
Figure 1.17 Descent with modification: finches on the Galápagos Islands
Large ground finch
Geospiza
magnirostris
(seed-eater)
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30. In studying nature, scientists form and test hypotheses
Science: means “to know”
Inquiry: the search for information and explanation
Involves the hypothetico-deductive reasoning
Biology begins with careful observations
Recorded observations are called data
Data fall into two categories
Qualitative data, or descriptions rather than measurements
i.e.Jane Goodall’s observations of chimpanzee behavior
Quantitative data, or recorded measurements, which are sometimes organized into tables and graphs
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31. Figure 1.18
Figure 1.18 Jane Goodall collecting qualitative data on chimpanzee behavior
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32. Inductive reasoning: used to develop a hypothesis
What is a hypothesis? An educated guess
Go from a large number of specific observations to general conclusions
i.e.“all organisms are made of cells” :based on two centuries of microscopic observations
Hypothesis leads to predictions that can be tested with additional observations or an experiment
An experiment is a scientific test, often carried out under controlled conditions
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33. Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning: used to make predictions
Go from general premises to specific predictions
The hypothesis is then tested experimentally
A hypothesis can never be conclusively proven to be true because we can never test all the alternatives
Hypotheses gain credibility by surviving multiple attempts at falsification, while alternative hypotheses are eliminated by testing
A hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable
For example, hypotheses involving supernatural explanations cannot be tested
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34. The initial observations may lead to multiple hypotheses to be tested
For example
Observation: Your desk lamp doesn’t work
Question: Why doesn’t your lamp work?
Hypothesis 1: The bulb is burnt out
Hypothesis 2: The lamp is broken
Both these hypotheses are testable
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35. FORMING AND TESTING HYPOTHESES
Figure 1.19
EXPLORATION
AND
DISCOVERY
FORMING
AND
TESTING
HYPOTHESES
SOCIETAL
BENEFITS
AND
OUTCOMES
COMMUNITY
ANALYSIS
AND
FEEDBACK
Figure 1.19 The process of science: a realistic model
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36. Experimental Variables and Controls
A controlled experiment compares an experimental group (the non-camouflaged mice) with a control group (the camouflaged mice)
The factor that is manipulated and the effect of the factor on the system are both experimental variables
The factor manipulated by the researchers—color—is called the independent variable
The effect of the manipulated factor—amount of predation—is called the dependent variable
Researchers usually control unwanted variables by canceling them out using control groups
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37. Theories in Science In the context of science, a theory is
Broader in scope than a hypothesis
General enough to lead to new testable hypotheses
Supported by a large body of evidence in comparison to a hypothesis
Theory is the highest honor that can be given to any piece of information in science
Cell Theory
Theory of Evolution
Big Bang Theory
Wave Theory of Light
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