1. Geologic Time Scale
see Page 39, text
Precambrian

2. Phylogeny of the Fishes
The first vertebrates to appear in the fossil record occurred in the late Cambrian Period (~500 mya). These were jawless armored fishes known as Ostracoderms.
All jawless fishes were formerly placed in the Class Agnatha, with 4 separate Orders of Ostracoderms + 2 living Orders (1 each for hagfishes and lampreys).

3. Jawless Fishes
Current scenario breaks Agnathans (now a Superclass) into 3 separate classes.
Class Myxini – includes hagfishes.
entirely marine
cartilaginous skeleton without bony armor, no hint of vertebral development
feed by boring into dead or dying fish with raspy tongue
evidence suggests that hagfishes are the most primitive living vertebrate
Some authors separate out hagfish from vertebrates because they lack any trace of vertebral formation around the notochord. In this scenario, hagfish and vertebrates are sister taxa and comprise the Subphylum Craniata.
However, recent evidence suggests a secondary loss of vertebral elements in Hagfish, so they appear to belong to Vertebrata.

4. Jawless Fishes Class Pteraspidomorphi – Diplorhina (two nostrils)
oldest documented vertebrate fossils
appear in late Cambrian-Devonian
paired nasal openings
most have bony head shields
Class Cephalaspidomorpha – Monorhina (one nostril)
varied body shapes and varied lifestyles
single nasal opening
fossil forms heavily armored (Silurian-late Devonian)
includes living lamprey (Order Petromyzontiformes)
freshwater and marine groups
cartilaginous skeleton, bony armor completely lost (secondary condition)
feed by attaching sucker-like mouth to other fishes and suck blood
larval form (Ammocoetes) very different from adult – burrow into stream bottom and filter feed (similar to Amphioxus)

5. Hagfish
Lamprey

6. Jawless Fishes
Ostracoderms are now included in Classes Pteraspidomorphi and Cephalaspidomorpha, rather than their own separate Orders within Agnatha.
Other general characteristics of Ostracoderms:
mostly small to medium-sized fishes, protected by a heavy, bony dermal (derived from skin) armor
bottom-dwellers; filter-feeders or grazers
no paired fins, but many with stabilizing paired flaps on either side of head
internal head skeleton bony in some forms, but postcranial skeleton was cartilaginous

7. Examples of Ostracoderms
see Figs 3.9 and 3.10

8. Jawed Fishes (Gnathostomes)
A major feature in fish evolution was the development of jaws from the 1st gill arch. This opened new niches into which jawed fishes radiated.
3 Classes of jawed fishes in Superclass Gnathostoma.
Class Placodermi – placoderms
Class Chondrichthyes – cartilaginous fish
Class Osteichthyes – bony fish
Some authors lump placoderms and Chondrichthyes into Elasmobranchiomorphi; some split Osteichthyes into Acanthodii and Osteichthyes.

9. Class Placodermi
Appear in the fossil record in late Silurian (400+ mya), extinct by end of Permian (~230 mya).
Well developed jaws and paired fins (dramatically increased mobility); bony plates served as teeth
Mainly marine, but some FW forms
Anterior region of body covered with heavy bony armor in most forms
Many were active predators, ranging in size from a few inches to 30 feet
Present evidence suggests that they are unrelated to any living fishes, although formerly thought to be potential ancestors to Chondrichthyes

10. Dinicthyes
Placoderms
see Fig 3.12

11. Class Chondrichthyes Includes sharks, skates, rays, ratfish
Cartilaginous skeleton, secondary condition with loss of bony armor and internal bone
First appear during Devonian (~380 mya), peaked during Carboniferous and Permian ( mya)
Possess well developed jaws and paired fins; jaws with true teeth
Mostly marine, but some FW representatives

12. Rays
Ratfish
Sharks
Class Chondrichthyes
see Fig 3.13

13. Class Osteichthyes (Bony Fish)
Represents the most numerous and diverse fish class
Bony skeleton retained from ancestral vertebrates
3 Subclasses – all with well developed jaws and paired fins
Subclass Acanthodii – “spiny-sharks”
odd, minnow-sized fishes occurring from Silurian (~425 mya) into Permian (~230 mya)
covered by peculiar diamond-shaped scales
heterocercal tail = upper lobe longer than lower lobe (like sharks)
well developed paired fins supported by a strong spine; include the normal two pairs, plus up to 5 additional pairs
possess true teeth and bony plate (operculum) covering gill region

14. Climatius (top left; Lower Devonian), Diplacanthus (top right; Middle Devonian) and Acanthodes (center; Lower Permian)
Acanthodians
see Fig 3.14

15. Class Osteichthyes (Bony Fish)
Subclass Actinopterygii = ray-finned fishes; includes vast majority of living fishes
Fins supported by bony rays
First appear in early Devonian (~400 mya)
Formerly divided into 3 Superorders (primitive to advanced):
Chondrosteans = most primitive group
Holosteans = succeed Chondrosteans in Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods ( mya); Not a monophyletic group.
Teleosts = advanced ray-finned fishes, form the vast majority of living fishes; became dominant by the end of the Cretaceous (65 mya); show reduction in bones of skull and scales; adapted in many cases for efficient and rapid locomotion (e.g., placement of paired fins)

16. Subclass Actinopterygii
Now divided into 2 Superorders:
Superorder Palaeonisciformes = primitive ray-finned fishes
Probably the earliest bony fishes.
Includes living paddlefish, sturgeon and bichir (Africa)
Marine and FW forms
Characterized by…
heterocercal tail
ganoine scales (ganoine scale = layers of ganoine [like enamel] on scale surface with successive layers of compact bone underlying pulp)
primitive forms with lungs to gulp air in oxygen-poor Devonian FW habitats

17. Subclass Actinopterygii
Superorder Neopterygii = advanced ray-finned fishes
Replaced Palaeonisciformes as dominant fish group in early Mesozoic
Great range of morphologies and inhabit variety of habitats worldwide; trend toward invasion of SW habitats
Loss of ganoine scales and shortening of tail (homocercal tail)
Primitive living Neopterygians include gars and bowfins (former Holosteans)
Most recent group = Teleosts
20,000 species; represent vast majority of living fishes

18. Palaeonisciformes (Chondrosteans) & “Holosteans”
Bichir
Paddlefish
Sturgeon
Gar
Palaeonisciformes (Chondrosteans) & “Holosteans”
see Fig 3.17
Bowfin

19. Teleosts
see Figs 3.16 & 3.17

20. Class Osteichthyes (Bony Fish)
Subclass Sarcopterygii = lobe-finned fishes; appear in early Devonian
Fins supported by a fleshy lobe
Possessed lungs and internal nares (like land vertebrates)
Possesed unique cosmoid scales (cosmine = similar to dentin; becomes covered with enamel to form scale)

21. Sarcopterygii with 2 Orders
Order Dipnoi = lungfishes; possess lungs and may breathe air;
3 living members, 1 each in Africa, Australia, and South America.
South American and African forms can survive out of water for months or years.
African form is obligate air-breather.
Fleshy fins supported by bones shaped like a fern frond, therefore not ancestral to land vertebrates.  
Order Crossopterygii – lobes supporting fins with bones similar to tetrapod limb.
Skull and teeth similar to those in early amphibians; early (Devonian) forms with lungs and internal nares; one branch (Rhipidistians) thought to be ancestors to Tetrapods.
A second branch evolved during Mesozoic Era in oceans (Coelacanths); thought to be extinct at end of Cretaceous until one was caught in 1939 off the coast of southern Africa. This is the only living Crossopterygian.

22. African Lungfish
Lungfish
See Fig 3.19
South American Lungfish

23. Coelocanth
Crossopterygians
See Fig 3.18

24. Crossopterygian Fin
Sarcopterygian Fin vs
Early Amphibian Limb
Comparison
Lungfish Fin

25. Fig 3.11 – Phylogentic relationships among the Fishes

26. Fig 3.15 – Phylogentic relationships
among the Osteichthyes