1. Chapter 22 Formal Analytical Reports
This chapter culminates the course, especially for upper level students—although some
instructors ask basic classes for a formal report as well. Students should have selected
their individual topics early in the semester (see Syllabus B), and ideally will have keyed
many of their earlier assignments (definition, description, partition and classification,
process narration) to this final report.
Early in the semester, go over in class the report samples in this chapter and in Case 2—
"Documents for the Course Project: A Sequence Culminating in the Final Report"—in the
Appendix to this instructor's manual to give students a sense of direction and purpose
and show them exactly what they are working toward as a semester goal. Ask them to
read “Typical Analytical Problems” to identify their specific purpose and approach.
Emphasize that the common purpose in all such analyses is to come up with specific
recommendations.
Begin the actual work on the analytical report early enough in the semester to give students
a chance for one revision according to your comments. Because many students are
intimidated by the prospect of this formal report, the revision becomes crucial in improving
the quality of their final product.
Encourage students to choose practical topics. Review their proposal to see that they
ground their analysis in a specific situation for a specific purpose and audience. Require
a report that readers can use in the workplace, derived as much from primary research
data as possible.
Students will be more invested in a report on a topic of interest to them, particularly one
in their field of study. Lower level students might have difficulty thinking of a topic. Master
Sheets 154–55 offer an abundance of topics for students who get stuck. For some students,
simply seeing a list of possible topics will help them generate their own.
Discuss at length how this final writing assignment differs from the earlier pieces.
Emphasize that earlier assignments almost always dealt with subjects having tangible
limits and structures—description, definition, instructions—in which the planning, organizing,
and writing of the document is guided mainly by the parts of the item or mechanism,
or the steps in the process, or the features of items that caused them to be sorted
into related categories. In an analytical report, however, the planning, organizing, and
developing occur as the topic itself undergoes refinement and redefinition. Instead of
being prescribed by the subject, the written formulation must finally come from a more
abstract situation: a problem to be solved, a question to be answered, or a decision to be
made. In fact, the report continually must evolve through stages, based on collected data,
until it takes its final shape. And that final shape should enable readers to follow the reasoning
and interpretation that led to the specific recommendations made. In short, the
quality of our analysis will only be as good as the quality of the questions we ask and the
answers we generate.
Even the more sophisticated student may have trouble with this notion. Close and frequent
individual consultation is vital.
The answers students generate from their analysis can be no better than the questions they
ask. Essential to asking the right questions is the writer’s clear definition of situation,
audience, and purpose. The guidelines on Master Sheet 153 should help your students.
For feasibility and problem-solving analyses as well, have each student follow the line of
focus on situation, audience, and purpose.
Remind students that the report text itself almost always embodies a standard organizing
pattern: introduction, body, and conclusion—or, orientation, discussion, and review sections.
When information is left in its original, unstructured form, readers waste a great
deal of time trying to understand and interpret the writer’s meaning. The length of each
section depends on the relative importance of that section to the report. Instructions, as in
Chapter 20, usually begin with a detailed introduction listing materials, equipment, cautions,
and so on. The body enumerates each step and substep. Only a brief conclusion follows;
the key information was in the procedure itself.
On the other hand, a problem-solving report often has a brief introduction outlining the
problem. The body may be quite long, explaining the possible and probable causes of the
problem. Because the conclusion includes a summary of findings, an overall interpretation
of the evidence, and definite recommendations, it is likely to be detailed. Only when
your investigation uncovers one specific answer or one definite cause will the body section
be relatively short.
Assign the research chapters if you have not yet done so. Be sure that bibliographies and
proposals are written early, and that frequent on-the-board workshops are held on outlining
tactics. Emphasize that dropping raw data into the reader’s lap is not enough; evaluation
and interpretation of data are crucial to the reader’s understanding.
Ask for one or more progress reports (see Chapter 21) during their work. Cheerleading
and prodding are crucial. Set a specific and firm deadline for submitting the final draft.
Require that first drafts be submitted with full attachments in case some students write an
excellent report on the first round. For first submissions, require a finished draft, not a
rough draft, to save yourself the hassle of serving as proofreader. The oral report segment
at semester’s end will give students time to revise as needed.
Team Project 1 works well in class as a warm-up for the rigors of outlining that students
will face.
Much like a good format, well-designed and well-chosen supplements enhance the
appeal and accessibility of a longer document. The formal analytical report provides an
excellent opportunity for students to practice creating front and end matter. Save your
discussion of these supplements until students are well along in planning, researching,
and writing a draft of their report. Discussion of individual supplements will be less confusing
and more effective when applied to actual reports in progress. In particular, students
will need practice writing a strong title. Use Additional Exercise 1 to illustrate why
a good title is important. You might also ask students to bring to class titles of their past
projects for other classes.
Also, save discussions about documentation until students are well along in writing their
reports. Unless you have a preference, ask them to select a documentation system customary
to their field of study. If necessary, students should supply you with guidelines for
the chosen style.

2. Learning Objectives
Appreciate the role of formal analytical reports in the workplace
Understand the role of audience and purpose for such reports
Identify three major types of analyses: causal, comparative, and feasibility
Know the criteria for sound analytical reasoning

3. Learning Objectives (continued)
Identify the parts that typically accompany a long report (front matter and end matter)
Write a formal analytical report

4. Formal Reports
Formal reports, unlike informal reports, are always analytical, rather than simply informative. They answer big questions and usually provide recommendations.
Written as hard copy documents rather than as a memo or attachment, a formal report typically includes a title page, table of contents, a system of headings, a list of references or works cited, and other front-matter and end-matter supplements.

5. Audience and Purpose Considerations
Because of their major impact on the decision-making process, formal reports are almost always written for an audience of decision makers such as government officials or corporate managers.
To determine the purpose of the report, consider what question or questions it will ultimately answer. Also, consider why this particular topic is timely and useful to the intended audience.

6. Typical Analytical Problems
A formal analytical report may involve any of three types of analysis (or a combination):
Causal Analysis: “Why does X happen?”
Comparative Analysis: “Is X or Y better for our needs?”
Feasibility Analysis: “Is this a good idea?”
Combined: Analytical categories overlap considerably. For example, a formal report may answer a more complex question like, “Why did X happen? Having considered that, is it a good idea to go with Y instead?

7. Guidelines for Casual Analysis
Follow these guidelines when writing a formal report exploring causal analysis (“Why does X happen?”):
Be sure the cause fits the effect.
Make the links between effect and cause clear.
Clearly distinguish between possible, probable, and definite causes.

8. Guidelines for Comparative Analysis
Follow these guidelines when writing a formal report exploring comparative analysis (“Is X or Y better for our needs?”):
Base the comparison on clear and definite criteria.
Give each item balanced treatment.
Support and clarify the comparison or contrast through credible examples.
Follow either a block pattern (item-by-item) or a point- by-point pattern.
In an evaluative comparison (“X is better than Y”), offer your final judgment.

9. Guidelines for Feasibility Analysis
Follow these guidelines when writing a formal report exploring feasibility analysis (“Is this a good idea?”):
Consider the strength of supporting reasons.
Consider the strength of opposing reasons.
Recommend a realistic course of action.

10. Elements of An Effective Analysis
Consider all of the following elements when writing a formal analytical report:
Clearly identified problem or purpose: Always begin by defining the main questions and thinking through any subordinate questions they may imply.
Adequate but not excessive data: Worthwhile analysis, in contrast, examines an issue in depth, but filters out material that isn’t necessary for the audience’s understanding.
Accurate and balanced data: Always strive for accuracy and avoid stacking the evidence to support a preconceived point of view.

11. Elements of An Effective Analysis
(continued)
Fully interpreted data: Interpretation shows the audience what is important and what is unimportant, what belongs together and what does not.
Subordination of personal bias: To arrive at the truth of the matter, evaluate your data (Is this reliable and important?) and interpret it (What does it mean?) at every stage, without letting your personal opinions get in the way.
Appropriate visuals: Graphs are especially useful in an analysis of trends. Tables, charts, photographs, and diagrams work well in comparative analyses.

12. Elements of An Effective Analysis
(continued)
Valid conclusions and recommendations: Conclusions are valid when they are logically derived from accurate interpretations.
Self-Assessment: Continually ask yourself if you are on track. You may need to backtrack if your goal isn’t clear enough, you haven’t uncovered the right information, or you don’t agree with your anticipated recommendation.
Introduction: Identify your topic’s origin and significance, define or describe the problem or issue, and explain the report’s purpose. Briefly identify your research and explain any limitations or omissions.

13. Elements of An Effective Analysis
(continued)
Body: Describe and explain your findings in detail. Present a clear and detailed picture of the evidence, interpretations, and reasoning on which you will base your conclusion. Divide topics into subtopics, and use informative headings as aids to navigation.
Conclusion: Summarize, interpret, and recommend. Although you have interpreted evidence at each stage of your analysis, your conclusion presents a broad interpretation and suggests a course of action, where appropriate.

14. Front Matter and End Matter
Supplements
Most formal reports or proposals consist of the front matter, the text of the report, and the end matter. Include the following in this order:
Letter of transmittal: This letter on top of the document signals its formality and can provide a variety of details, but keep them brief.
Title page: The title page provides the document title, the names of all authors and their affiliations, and the date the report was submitted. The title itself should exactly spell out the purpose of the report and use descriptive words, but it should not be overly long.

15. Front Matter and End Matter Supplements (continued)
Table of contents: The table of contents helps readers by listing the page number for each major section, including any front matter that falls after the table of contents.
List of Tables and Figures: On a separate page following the table of contents, list the tables and figures in the report, if there are more than a few.
Abstract or Executive Summary: The purpose of this summary is to provide a brief overview of the report for busy readers, explaining the issue, describing how you researched it, and stating your conclusions.

16. Front Matter and End Matter Supplements (continued)
Glossary: Use a glossary as the first item after the text of the report if your report contains more than five technical terms that may not be understood by all intended readers.
Appendices: If you have large blocks of material or other documents that are relevant but will bog readers down, place these in an appendix.
References or Works Cited List: If you have used outside sources in your report (and typically you should), you must provide a list of References (per APA style) or of Works Cited (per MLA style).

17. Review Questions
1. How is a formal report different from an informal report? 2. Who is nearly always the audience for a formal report? 3. What question does a causal analysis answer? 4. What question does a comparative analysis answer? 5. What question does a feasibility analysis answer?
Answers
1. Formal reports, unlike informal reports, are always analytical, rather than simply informative. They answer big questions and usually provide recommendations.
2. Decision makers.
3. Causal Analysis: “Why does X happen?”
4. Comparative Analysis: “Is X or Y better for our needs?”
5. Feasibility Analysis: “Is this a good idea?”

18. Review Questions (continued)
6. What are three considerations to keep in mind regarding the data in a formal report? 7. What types of visuals are useful in formal reports? 8. Why is self-assessment important when writing a formal report? 9. What are the five front matter elements that typically appear in formal reports? 10. What are the three end matter elements that typically appear in formal reports?
Answers (continued)
6. Make sure the data are adequate but not excessive, accurate and balanced, and fully interpreted.
7. Graphs are especially useful in an analysis of trends. Tables, charts, photographs, and diagrams work well in comparative analyses.
8. It keeps you on track. Continually ask yourself if you are on track. You may need to backtrack if your goal isn’t clear enough, you haven’t uncovered the right information, or you don’t agree with your anticipated recommendation.
9. Letter of transmittal, title page, table of contents, list of tables and figure, and abstract or executive summary.
10. Glossary, appendices, and references or works cited list.