1. 2.1 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
2.0 ANALYSISI AND DESIGN
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
PREPARED BY :
NOR AZAH BINTI AZIZ
KOLEJ MATRIKULASI TEKNIKAL KEDAH

2. 2.1 Introduction to Analysis and Design
Learning Outcomes :
At the end of the lessons, students should be able to:
Identify engineering data for analysis and design.
Identify approaches to analysis and design.

3. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND STRUCTURAL DESIGN

4. Structural Analysis
Structural analysis is the determination of the effects
of loads on physical structures and their components.
Structures subject to this type of analysis include
all that must withstand loads, such as buildings, bridges, vehicles, machinery, furniture, attire, soil strata, prostheses and biological tissue.
Structural analysis incorporates the fields of applied mechanics, materials science and applied mathematics
to compute a structure's deformations, internal forces,
stresses, support reactions, accelerations, and stability.

5. Structural Analysis The results of the analysis are used to verify a
structure's fitness for use, often saving physical tests.
Structural analysis is thus a key part of the
engineering design of structures.

6. Structural Design “Structural design can be defined as a mixture of
art and Science, combining the engineer’s feeling
for the behavior of a structure with a sound knowledge
of the principles of statics, dynamics, mechanics of materials, and structural analysis, to produce a safe economical structure that will serve its intended
purpose.” (Salmon and Johnson 1990)

7. Classification of Structure
Important for a structural engineer
- to recognize the various types of elements composing a structure and to be able to classify structures as to their form and function.
Structural elements are tie rods, rod, bar, angle,
channel, beams, and columns.
Combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are composed is referred to as a structural system.
Some of structural systems are Trusses, Cables and Arches, Frames, and Surface Structures.

8. Structural Elements Structural Elements
Such members or elements include the following:
Trusses
Beams
Columns
Shear Structural Elements
Steel Rods
Connection Elements

9. Structural Elements Engineering Systems
Structural Elements - Bending Structures

10. Structural Elements Engineering Systems Structural Elements
– Compression Structures

11. Structural Elements
Engineering Systems
Structural Elements – Trusses

12. Structural Elements Engineering Systems
Structural Elements – Tension structures

13. Structural Elements Engineering Systems
Structural Elements – Shear Structures

14. Engineering System Engineering structural systems are of variety that
they defy any attempt to enumerate them.
The many problems which arise in their design has
prompted engineers to specialize in the design
of particular structure or groups of related structures.
A complete design requires the coordinated efforts
of several branches of engineering.

15. Engineering System
KLCC TWIN TOWER

16. Engineering System
Engineering Systems
LONDON BRIDGE

17. Engineering System
Engineering Systems
FRAME STRUCTURE

18. Engineering System Engineering Systems HOOVER DAM
Arizona-Nevada Border
Near Las Vegas

19. Engineering System
Engineering Systems
TRANSMISSION TOWERS

20. Engineering System
Engineering Systems
RETAINING WALL

21. Engineering System Engineering Systems AIRPORT AND
HIGHWAY LANDING STRIP

22. Analysis Versus Design
Structural Analysis
Structural Analysis is the prediction of the performance of a given structure under prescribed loads and/or other effects, such as support movements and temperature change.
Structural Design
Structural design is the art of
utilizing principles of statics, dynamics
and mechanics of materials to
determine the size and arrangement of structural elements under prescribed loads and/or other effects.

23. Analysis Versus design
Design Procedure Design procedure consists of two parts: i) Functional Design - ensures that intended results are achieved such as adequate working area, elevators, stairways, etc.
ii) Structural Framework Design
Structural framework design is the selection
of the arrangement and sizes of structural elements so that service loads may be carried.

24. Analysis Versus design

25. Definition of Structure
A structure is an engineering construction that supports dead and imposed load without noticeable deformation besides fulfilling its functions.

26. Types of structure Types of Structure
i) Mass Structure - depends on its mass to support loads. - e.g earth dam and rock-filled dam
ATATURK DAM, TURKEY

27. Types of Structure
ii) Framed Structure - structure built according to specific components. - a component that carries load transfer it to another component, n continuously down to the lowest component geometrically below.

28. BUILDING STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
Column
Roof
Beam
Foundation
Floor Slab
Wall

29. Design Method Design based on design standards Bs 8110 are
based on Limit State Method.
This method is designed to set the structure
should be very safe and is suitable for use,
ie. it does not reach the age limit during
the service.
when elements in the structure can not
function according to its use, it is said
to be approaching the limit ( limit states).

30. Design Method Limit states for reinforced concrete structure are;
i) Durability
durable to environmental exposures that cause defects or corrosion in reinforced concrete
ii) Fire resistance
Resistance to fire exposures according to standard stated in BS8110
iii) Ultimate limit State
situation where the entire structure or integral element of failure such as collapse or fall
iii) Serviceability Limit States
Circumstances occurs when the structure becomes inappropriate or uncomfortable to use, such as cracking, the deflection and vibration in excess of the prescribed standards.
iii) Special Limit States
the damage or failure caused by loading or unusual sources such as earthquakes, explosions, etc.

31. Design Method

32. Ultimate Limit State Can be divided into; Loss of equilibrium
occurs when the structure being tilted / crooked or slippage occurs which causes the equilibrium of forces can not be determined
Rupture
structural element that breaks / breaks that cause the structure tends to collapse as part or full collapse.
Progressive Collapse
occurs when part of the load support element or elements beyond the limits of failure during the construction process that could cause the entire structure installment progressively damaged and collapsed.
progressive collapse can be prevented or delayed by binding a critical part or other alternatives for distributing the load.

33. Formation of plastic mechanism
Ultimate Limit State
Can be divided into;
Formation of plastic mechanism
situation where the reinforcing steel reaches yield point and form a plastic hinge that causes the loss of structural stability.
Instability
failure occurs due to excessive displacement or buckling of structural instability.
Fatigue
element failure occurs when the cyclic load is continuous imposed on him.

34. Serviceability Limit State
is taken into account for the normal work of a structure in which the deflection and cracking that occurs must not exceed the limits described.
Excessive deflection
may cause the structure is not fully functional. can be determined by observation / continuous monitoring
Excessive Cracking
typically, the reinforcement of concrete will not be fully functional as long as the measure for concrete cracks do not exceed the standard. However, cracks causing leaks and corrosion of the reinforcement occurs.
Excessive Vibration
For concrete structure, there are vertical vibration, lateral vibration and torsion vibration.
Rarely happen in reinforced concrete.

35. Design Method Reinforced concrete structures designed to meet
the ultimate limit state and checked for serviceability limit state.
It is important because the main function of the structural elements of the building is to support the load without endangering the occupants.

36. Loads In order to design a structure, it is necessary to
determine the loads that act on it.
The design loading for a structure is often specified in
building codes:
- general building codes
- design codes
engineer must satisfy all the codes requirements for a
reliable structure.  

37. Loads The structure of a building is the part which
is responsible for maintaining the shape of
the building under the influence of the forces
to which it is subjected.
A building must be designed to safely withstand
the most severe combination of forces or loads
likely to be applied during its lifetime.

38. Structural principles - Loads
The design loading for a structure is often specified in building codes:
- general building codes
- design codes
engineer must satisfy all the codes requirements for a
reliable structure.  
use the unit kilopascals (kPa) to measure stress
and pressure, and kilonewtons (kN) to measure forces
and loads.
Note: 1 kPa = 1 kN/m2

39. Primary loads Primary Load Introduction
There are three primary loads which a
structure must resist:
dead load
live load
wind load.

40. Primary loads – Dead Load
Dead load on a structure ;
- the result of the weight of the permanent components
such as beams, floor slabs, columns and walls.
- these components will produce the same constant 'dead'
load during the lifespan of the building.
- are exerted in the vertical plane.
Dead load
= volume of member x unit weight of materials
By calculating the volume of each member and multiplying by the unit weight of the materials from which it is composed, an accurate dead load can be determined for each component.

41. Primary loads – Dead Load
The different components can then be added together to determine the dead load for the entire structure.
Table 1: Dead load comparisons of various materials
Material
Unit weight kN/m3
Plain concrete
23.5
Reinforced concrete 24
Glass
25.5
Mild steel 77
Hardwood 11
Softwood 8
By calculating the volume of each member and multiplying by the unit weight of the materials from which it is composed, an accurate dead load can be determined for each component.

42. Dead Load

43. Primary loads – Dead Load
Volume of beam 10.0 x 0.6 x 0.3 = 1.8 m3 Unit weight of reinforced concrete = 24 kN/m3 Therefore, dead load of beam = volume x unit weight = 1.8 m3 x 24 kN/m3 = 43.2 kN

44. Example:
A 125-mm thick brickwall is constructed along a beam. The clear height of the wall is 2.7m. Assuming a wall density of 1800 kg/m3, calculate the weight of the wall on the beam in kN/m.
125mm
2.7m

45. Answer: Weight = density x gravity =1800x9.8 =17.64kN/m3
Area cross (section)
= 2.7x0.125
= m2
Weight in kN/m
= 17.64kN/m3 x m3
= 5.96 kN/m

46. Primary loads – Live Load
All unfixed items in a building
- such as people and furniture result in a 'live' load
on the structure.
Live loads are;
- exerted in the vertical plane.
- variable as they depend on usage and capacity
By calculating the volume of each member and multiplying by the unit weight of the materials from which it is composed, an accurate dead load can be determined for each component.

47. Primary loads – Live Load
For example;
- the live load for a floor in a house is given as
1.5 kPa compared to a dance hall floor live
load of 5.0 kPa.
- It is reasonable to expect that a dance hall would have more people in it than a house.
Live loads for floors as per building usage
Uniformly distributed load kPa or kN/m2
Houses
1.5
Flats, apartments, motel bedrooms
2.0
Offices
3.0
Workshops
5.0
Parking, vehicle > 2.5 t
Hospitals, school assembly areas with fixed seating
Dance halls, bars, lounges
Table 2: Live load comparisons

48. Live Load

49. Primary loads – Live Load
Area of floor
= 6.0 m x 4.0 m = 24 m2 Live load rating of a house
= 1.5 kN/ m2 Therefore, live load of floor
= 24 m2 x 1.5 kN/ m2
= 36 kN

50. Primary loads – Wind Loads I
Wind loads have become very important in recent
years due to the extensive use of lighter materials
and more efficient building techniques.
A Victorian era building with heavy masonry, timbers
and slate tiles will not be affected by the wind load,
but the structural design of a modern steel clad
industrial building is dominated by the wind load.
By calculating the volume of each member and multiplying by the unit weight of the materials from which it is composed, an accurate dead load can be determined for each component.

51. Primary loads – Wind Loads I
Wind blowing against the building results
in positive pressure which pushes against
the building.
A vortex results in negative pressure which
pulls at the building.
By calculating the volume of each member and multiplying by the unit weight of the materials from which it is composed, an accurate dead load can be determined for each component.

52. Primary loads – Wind Loads I
Wind acts both on the main structure
and on the individual cladding units of
a building.
The structure has to be braced to resist
the horizontal load and anchored to the
ground to prevent the whole building from
being blown away if the dead weight of the
building is not sufficient to hold it down.
By calculating the volume of each member and multiplying by the unit weight of the materials from which it is composed, an accurate dead load can be determined for each component.

53. Primary loads – Wind Loads I
Because of this, careful placement of bracing
or other means of maintaining stability is
necessary.
It is also important to tie the roof materials
to the supporting battens or rafters.
By calculating the volume of each member and multiplying by the unit weight of the materials from which it is composed, an accurate dead load can be determined for each component.

54. Primary loads – Wind Loads 2
Wind load is considered to be dynamic as
it varies greatly in intensity from time to time.
Wind loads are very different to dead loads
and live loads.
Wind loads typically act laterally.
A force acting laterally is acting in a sideways
direction on walls and may act up and down
on roofs.

55. Loads Types of Loads 1. Dead loads 2. Live loads 3. Impact
4. Wind loads
5. Snow loads
6. Earthquake loads
7. Hydrostatic and soil pressure
8. Thermal and other effects

56. Characteristic Load Generally, the load may not be assessed
accurately.
Estimation of loads support by the building
must be based on estimated average costs
to avoid wastage.

57. Characteristic Load 1) Characteristic dead load, gk
The load that is applied permanently throughout
the design life.
not vary much from the estimated value .
E.g; self weight of structure element, finishing, equipment such as air-cond.,
water tank, piping, etc.

58. CHARACTERISTIC LOAD Characteristic Load 2) Imposed load, qk
The load that is applied temporarily
and may vary with time in terms
of position and magnitude.
E.g; human, furnitures, stored material, machineries and other equipment.
Cannot be calculated precisely.

59. CHARACTERISTIC LOAD Characteristic Load 3) Wind Load, Wk
It is considered in design to overcome
lifting effect.
Depends on location, form, building dimension and wind velocity of the area.

60. DESIGN LOAD Equation : Design load (Factored Load)
= characteristic load x ∂f
∂f = a partial safety factor for load.
Loads acting on a structure normally
consist of combination of several load types.
:- dead and imposed load = 1.4 Gk Qk
:- dead and wind load = 1.0 Gk Wk

61. Load analysis distribution and path
RAFTER
PURLIN
GROUND SLAB
STUMP
FOUNDATION
COLUMN
ROOF BEAM
ELEVATED SLAB
ROOF SHEET
GROUND BEAM
WALL