1. Introduction to the rhetorical triangle

2. Questions to Consider:
“[The English language] becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts... if thought corrupts language, language can also corrupt thought.” ― George Orwell, Politics and the English Language
What argument is Orwell making in the quote to the left? Do you agree or disagree? (Explain!)
What is the primary function of language?
Is language political?

3. Object # 1 (doll)
Directions: work in your groups to answer the following questions.
Describe this object. Who is the intended audience for this object?
What is the argument here?
What is the purpose of this argument?
Why?

4. Object # 2 (truck)
Directions: work in your groups to answer the following questions.
Describe this object. Who is the intended audience for this object?
What is the argument here?
What is the purpose of this argument?
Why?

5. What is rhetoric?
Rhetoric may be defined as the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.
—Aristotle
Aristotle believed that from the world around them, speakers could observe how communication happens and use that understanding to develop sound and convincing arguments. In order to do that, speakers needed to look at three elements, graphically represented by what we now call the rhetorical triangle:

6. Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle

7. Audience
We’re going to focus on the audience piece of the rhetorical triangle. Each of you have been given a topic and an audience. Write a paragraph about your topic to your audience.
DO NOT DISCUSS!!!!

8. Audience continued
Discuss the results of your audience-writing exercise with your group. Be sure to share which audience you were assigned. What do you notice about each paragraph? Be specific!
You should, as a group, identify at least two key differences you noticed.

9. The study of rhetorical strategies
Connotation- the associated or secondary meaning of a word or expression in addition to its explicit or primary meaning.
Denotation- the dictionary definition- media.collegeboard.org/apc/_ap06_frq_englishlang_51616.pdf

10. Connotation continued
As a group, rank the following words as either positive, negative, or neutral:
A. student, apprentice, disciple, junior, learner, novice, scholar, undergraduate
B. skinny, bony, angular, emaciated, gaunt, malnourished, scrawny, slender, thin, anorexic,
C. run, amble, bound, dart, dash, scurry, lope, sprint,
D. busy, active, diligent, employed, occupied, unavailable

11. Diction DICTION: The choice of a particular word as opposed to others.
Experts tell us the French language has a vocabulary of about 125,000 words. The English language has a vocabulary of about half a million, not including technical or other specialized language.
So in English we can say exactly what we mean because we have so many synonyms. (Perhaps that is why the writer Orson Scott Card [Ender’s Game] says there are no true synonyms in English.)
A writer could call a rock formation by many words – a stone, a boulder, an outcropping, a pile of rocks, a cairn, a mound, or even an anomalous geological feature. The analytical reader then faces tough questions: Why that particular choice of words? What is the effect of that diction?

12. Levels of diction Formal Informal Slang Are not angry Aren’t mad
High or Formal Diction: usually contains language that creates and elevated tone. It is free of slang, idioms, colloquialisms, and contractions. It often contains polysyllabic words, sophisticated syntax, and elegant word choice.
Neutral Diction: uses standard language and vocabulary without elaborate words and may include contractions.
Informal or Low Diction: is the language of everyday use. It is relaxed and conversational. It often includes common and simple words, idioms, slang, jargon and contractions.
Are not angry
Aren’t mad
Ain’t ticked
Formal Informal Slang

13. Types of diction
Slang: refers to a group of recently coined words often used in informal situations.
Colloquial expressions: are nonstandard, often regional, ways of using language appropriate to informal or conversational speech and writing.
Jargon: consists of words and expressions characteristic of a particular profession or pursuit.
Dialect: is a nonstandard subgroup of a language with its own vocabulary and grammatical features.
Concrete diction: consists of specific words that describe physical qualities or conditions.
Abstract diction: refers to language that denotes ideas, emotions, conditions or concepts that are intangible.

14. L-low or informal diction (dialect, slang, jargon)
LEAD
Analysis of Diction: LEAD
L-low or informal diction (dialect, slang, jargon)
E- elevated language or formal diction
A-abstract and concrete diction
D-denotation and connotation

15. You practice!
Write two short paragraphs on the subject you were assigned. One paragraph should be high or elevated diction and the other low or informal.

16. Connotative essay
The list below is made up of pairs of words that are closely related in meaning but differ
in connotation. Select one or more pairs; then write the thesis and introductory paragraph of an essay in which you discuss and elaborate on the distinctions between the words in each pair you have chosen. Include in your discussion such considerations as how, when, where, why, and by whom each word
is likely to be used.
Art . . Craft
Faith. . Creed
Gang. . Club
Imaginative. . Fanciful
Instrument. . Tool
Intelligent. . Smart
Labor. . Work
Lady. . Woman
Recreation. . Play
Religion. .Cult
Terrorist. . Revolutionary

17. Exigence
In rhetoric, exigence is a problem or situation that prompts someone to speak or write.
All rhetorical situations originate with an exigence, the exigence is what motivates a rhetor to argue in the first place. Why does the rhetor need to make this point? What will this argument do for the world?
The term exigence comes from the Latin word for “demand”
To understand exigence, think about what has compelled this author to write?
How does exigency differ from purpose?

18. Syntax
Syntax refers to the way in which words are put together to form phrases, clauses and sentences.

19. Kinds of sentences
Declarative: makes a statement (“The king is sick.”)
Imperative: gives a command (“Cure the king!”)
Interrogative: asks a question (“Is the king really sick?”)
Exclamatory: provides emphasis or expresses strong emotion (“That king is such a hypochondriac!”)

20. Structure of sentences
Simple: one independent clause (“The singer bowed to her adoring audience.”)
Compound: two independent clauses joined by coordinate conjunction or semicolon (“The singerbowed to her audience, but she sang no encores.”)
Complex: an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses (“When the singer claimed she was tired, her manager knew that she did not want to sing an encore.”)
Compound-complex: two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses (“The singer went straight to her hotel after she finished the concert, but she sneaked out to a party later.”)
Order within sentences:
Natural order: the subject appears before the predicate (“Oranges grow in California.”)
Inverted order [also called anastrophe]: the predicate appears before the subject; used for emphasis or rhythmic effect (“In California grow the oranges.”)

21. Patterns of sentences
Loose (or cumulative): makes sense even if brought to a close before the actual ending [main clause at the beginning]. (“We reached Edmonton that morning after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, tired but exhilarated, full of stories to tell our friends and neighbors.” This sentence could end before the modifying phrases without losing its coherence.)
Periodic: makes sense only when the end of the sentence is reached [main clause delayed until the end]: (“That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton.”)
Balanced: the phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness of structure,meaning, or length: “He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters.”
Telegraphic: very brief, often only a 3-5 word sentence. May be used for sudden contrast or emphasis. (“Jesus wept.”)

22. Other syntactic techniques
Juxtaposition: normally unassociated ideas, words, phrases [even characters or entire scenes] are placed next to one another, often creating the effect of surprise and/or wit. (“The apparition of these faces in the crowd: / Petals on a wet, black bough.” –from “In a Station of the Metro,” by Ezra Pound)
Parallel structure [or parallelism]: grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence; involves an arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased (“He loved swimming, running, and playing tennis.”)
Repetition: words, sounds, and/or ideas used more than once to enhance rhythm and create emphasis (“. . .government of the people, by the people and for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” – Abraham Lincoln)

23. Other syntactic techniques
Rhetorical question: requires no answer; used to draw attention to a point and is generally stronger than a direct statement (“If Ferchoff is always fair, as you have claimed, why did he refuse to listen to Ms. Baldwin’s arguments?”)
Rhetorical fragment: sentence fragment used deliberately for a persuasive purpose or to created a desired effect (“Biting the strawberry, thinking storms, I see her. A slim young girl in a pink crepe dress.” –Toni Morrison, The Bluest Eye)