1. States of Consciousness
Chapter 4
States of Consciousness
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2. Chapter Preview The Nature of Consciousness Sleep and Dreams
Psychoactive Drugs
Hypnosis
Meditation
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3. Consciousness William James & Stream of Consciousness
Awareness of external events and internal sensations
Metacognition - Thinking about your thoughts
Involves cerebral cortex - Association areas & frontal lobes
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4. Consciousness Arousal
Physiological state of being engaged with the environment
Determined by reticular activating system
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5. Consciousness and the Brain
Awareness and arousal, are associated with different parts of the brain
Areas of the prefrontal cortex appear to be involved in the ways that awareness goes beyond the input of sensory information
Arousal is determined by the reticular activating system
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6. Theory of Mind
Individuals’ understanding that they and others think, feel, perceive, and have private experiences
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7. Levels of Awareness Higher-level consciousness
Lower-level consciousness
Altered states of consciousness
Subconscious awareness
No awareness
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8. Figure 4.1 – Levels of Awareness
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9. Sleep: Biological Rhythms
A natural state of rest for the body and mind that involves the reversible loss of consciousness
Biological rhythms
Periodic physiological fluctuations in body
“Biological Clocks”
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10. Sleep: Biological Rhythms
Circadian rhythms
Daily behavioral or physiological cycle
Sleep/wake, body temperature, blood pressure, blood sugar
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
Small brain structure using retinal input to synchronize its rhythm with daily light/dark cycle
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11. Figure 4.2 - Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
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12. Sleep: Biological Clocks
Desynchronizing the Biological Clock
Can get thrown off regular schedules
Jet travel, changing work shifts, insomnia
Resetting the Biological Clock
Bright light
Melatonin
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13. On average, humans sleep 22 years of their lifetime.

14. Why Do We Sleep? Evolutionary perspective – For protection
To conserve energy
Restoration – restore the body and mind
Brain plasticity - sleep helps with the consolidation of memories.
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15. Sleep Deprivation Lack of sleep is stressful
Trouble paying attention to tasks and solving problems
Decreased brain activity
Can influence moral judgment
Yet many of us do not get sufficient sleep
Americans, in general
Adolescents, in particular
Sleep patterns change into middle/late adulthood
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16. Sleep Deprivation
8 hours is generally suggested for adults, but the typical adult sleeps less than 7 hours a night.
9 hours is generally suggested for teenager, but the typical teen sleeps only about 6 hours a night.

17. Stages of Wakefulness & Sleep
Stages of sleep correspond to massive electrophysiological changes occur throughout the brain
The fast, irregular, and low-amplitude electrical activity of wakefulness is replaced by the slow, regular, high-amplitude waves of deep sleep
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18. Wakefulness Stages Beta waves Alpha waves
Reflect concentration and awareness
Highest in frequency, lowest in amplitude
More desynchronous, or inconsistent
Alpha waves
Relaxed, but still awake
Brain waves slowed down, increased in amplitude
More synchronous, or regular
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20. Sleep Stages 1 and 2 Stage 1 Stage 2 Drowsy sleep
Myoclonic jerks, or sudden muscle movements
EEG characterized by slow, high-amplitude theta waves
Stage 2
Decreased muscle activity
No conscious awareness of environment
Theta waves interspersed with sleep spindles
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21. Sleep Stages 3 and 4
Characterized by delta waves - Slowest and highest-amplitude brain waves
Referred to as delta sleep, the deepest sleep
Bedwetting, sleep walking, and sleep talking
Stage 3  less than 50% delta waves
Stage 4  more than 50% delta waves
After stage 4 – cycle back through stages 3 and 2.
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22. REM Sleep Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
Active stage during which dreaming occurs
Fast wave activity, similar to relaxed wakefulness
Likely plays a role in memory
Non-REM sleep  Stages 1 through 4
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23. Figure 4.4 - Characteristics and Formats of EEG Recordings During Stages of Sleep
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24. Sleep Cycles One sleep cycle REM stages become progressively longer
Five stages of sleep
90 to 100 minutes
Recurs several times a night
Just before and after REM sleep, you typically change body positions
REM stages become progressively longer
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25. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.

27. Figure 4.6 - Cycling Through a Night’s Sleep
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28. Sleep and the Brain Reticular Formation
Core of brain stem
Distinct pattern of neurotransmitter activity during each sleep stage
Plays crucial role in sleep and arousal
Neurotransmitters involved in sleep:
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Acetylcholine
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29. Figure 4.7 - Sleep Across the Human Life Span
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30. Sleep and Disease Stroke and asthma Obesity and heart disease
Immune system and infection
Cytokines – produced to fight infection & induce sleep
Mental disorders
Depression
Alzheimer disease, stroke, and cancer
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31. Sleep Disorders Insomnia Sleepwalking, sleep talking, and sleep eating
Nightmares and night terrors
Sudden arousal from sleep, intense fear
Narcolepsy
Sudden, overpowering urge to sleep
Sleep apnea
Individuals stop breathing and awaken to breathe better
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33. Dreams Freud - Dreams symbolize unconscious wishes Cognitive theory
Manifest content  surface content  symbolic
Latent content  hidden content  true meaning
Cognitive theory
Dreams as subconscious cognitive processing
Lack of attention to roles of brain structures and activity in dreaming
Activation-synthesis theory
Dreams as result of synthesis of neural signals
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34. Uses of Psychoactive Drugs
Act on the nervous system to:
Alter consciousness
Modify perceptions
Change moods
Tolerance  Increasing amounts for same effect
Physical dependence  Need / Withdrawal
Psychological dependence Strong desire
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35. Addiction Physical or psychological dependence, or both
Psychoactive drugs increase dopamine levels in brain’s reward pathways
Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)
Nucleus accumbens
Activation of limbic and prefrontal areas of brain
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36. Figure 4.10 - The Brain’s Reward Pathway for Psychoactive Drugs
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37. Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants
Depressants: Psychoactive drugs that slow down mental and physical activity
Alcohol
Barbiturates
Nembutal and Seconal
Tranquilizers
Valium and Xanax
Opiates
Morphine and Heroin
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38. Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants
Psychoactive drugs that increase the central nervous system’s activity
Caffeine
Nicotine
Amphetamines (“Uppers”)
Crystal meth
Cocaine
Crack
MDMA (Ecstasy)
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39. Psychoactive Drugs: Hallucinogens
Modify a person’s perceptual experiences and produce visual images that are not real
Also called psychedelic drugs
Marijuana
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
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40. Hypnosis Altered state of consciousness
Psychological state of altered attention/expectation
Nature of hypnosis: The four steps
Minimizing distractions, maximizing comfort
Concentration on something specific
Information about what to expect in hypnotic state
Suggestion of events or feelings already occurring
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41. Explaining Hypnosis Hypnosis as a divided state of consciousness
“Hidden Observer”
Social cognitive behavior view of hypnosis
Cognitive factors
Attitudes
Expectations
Beliefs
Social Context
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42. Uses of Hypnosis To dampen brain processes experimentally
Helps in understanding:
The effects of hypnosis
The brain’s functioning
Most effective when combined with psychotherapy
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43. Meditation Attaining peaceful state of mind Mindfulness meditation
For depression, panic attacks, and anxiety
For chronic pain, stress, psoriasis
Meditative state of mind
Hypnogogic reverie  Feeling of wellness
Increased activation in basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex
Decreases in anterior cingulate
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