1. Early Years of the Turkish Republic: 1920s
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2. The independence movement in Turkey and the origins of the modern Turkish state go back to the Young Turk Revolution of Those intellectuals who were greatly influenced by the European nationalist thought formed the Comittee of Union and Progress.
Their ideology brought them in line with their main allies, the artisans (esnaf) and merchants (tüccar)- the class out of which they sought to forge a Turkish bourgeoisie.
In 1909, in the new cabinet, there were many members of the Comittee. The most important thing that this new government made was the amendments made to the Constitution. 21 articles had been changed, 1 article had been abolished and 3 new articles had been added. Most changes were in the context of personal rights and freedoms and the reform of the state mechanism which restrained the monarchy.
The Comittee had a great role in the announcement of the 2nd Reform (2. Meşrutiyet) and had power in the politics during
It declared itself as a political party in Until this party was in rule. In 1918 their leaders fled to Europe.
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3. 23 April 1920: Grand National Assembly was set up
IWW; 1918: Armistice of Mudros- occupation of Istanbul and partioning of the Ottoman.
The period of was a crisis period and the government (sultan and the house) was in alliance with the imperialists.
1920: Treaty of Sevres- partitioning of the Ottoman Empire by the Allies. The Kurdistan region was scheduled to have a referendum to decide its fate. This treaty was neglected by Mustafa Kemal and his friends.
23 April 1920: Grand National Assembly was set up
19 May Oct. 1923: War of Independence. This is a period of war, negotiations, treaties, conferences, setting the economic, political, social framework of the new state, Turkey.
January 1921: st İnönü Victory against the Greeks
September 1921: Sakarya Victory against the Greeks.
30 August 1922: Head of Commander Battle (Başkumandanlık Mey. Muhare.)
9 September 1922: emancipation of Izmir
October 1922: Mudanya Truce –Greeks to leave west of Anatolia.
1 November 1922: abolishment of the Sultanate by the National Assembly
17 November 1922: The last sultan 6. Mehmet (Vahideddin) left Istanbul. The Ottoman state ended.
29 October 1923: founding of the nation state- Turkey.
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4. The new nation state
When he founded the new Republic, Atatürk had inherited a nation which had
not entered the “age of enlightenment” , and a backward economy torn by wars. A
nation-state was lacking both in spirit and in organization.
The new nation state, the Republic of Turkey, focused on renovation and contemporariness (muassır medeniyet).
All structuring was holistic (bütüncül).
Institutionalization (such as chamber of commerce and industry, Central Bank, institutes of health, community centers, Linguistic and Historical Center) ; national production; and emphasis on human were the main pillars.
The merits of the people expected by the new state were: gender equality, rights of election, education, creative, independent thinking, productive, self-confident, contemporary, modern, eligible and qualified people.
Regulations, rules and laws in the fields of civil law, criminal law, business law; ways and methods of judgement that were taken from the European countries were adopted by the new Republic.
Turkey embarked on a path of national capitalist development with Turkish bourgeoisie under the guidance and control of the state and the military-civilian bureaucracy.
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5. An era full of radical reforms, great efforts, and uprisings..
was called the Atatürk Period, and was called the İnönü Period.
During the first years of the New Republic, the government gave priority to the carrying out of the major political, economic, social and cultural reforms, as well as the prevention of uprisings and insurrections of religious reactionary groups who were more against laicism than the Republic, and against the abolishment of caliphate and acceptance of European codes.
In 1925 Seyh Said’s religious uprising started and immediately gained ground in Eastern provinces.
The government accepted in March, 1924 a very severe disciplinary legislation called the Law Concerning Order (Takriri Sükun Kanunu).
Martial law was instituted in the Eastern region. The above-mentioned law gave the government vast powers.
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6. 1923-major events
1923 witnessed major events- 1st İzmir Economic Congress; Lausanne Treaty; announcement of the new state.
The economic policies of the new state to be founded were set in the 1st Izmir Economic Congress.
Lausanne Treaty set the principles for the economic and political independence of Turkey.
In October, the new state, the Republic of Turkey, was officially announced.
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7. 1st Izmir Economic Congress
When a break was taken in the Lausanne Conference, the Economic Congress in Izmir was gathered with attendance of 1,135 delegates (15 February - 4 March, 1923).
Representatives of merchants, industrialists, farmers, workers attended the congress.
Proposals of the groups
Merchants, the most well-prepared group, declared their wants as: establishment of a commercial bank with the state as co-partner; fixing the exchange and financial market; Friday be the holiday for all; enacting law about mines and forestry; rearranging maritime trade, trade and customs affairs; abolishing monopolies; arranging foreign trade; focus on education in economics; tax reductions; facilities in transportation and communication; foreign investment to be allowed but have to obey the rules; no concessions to the foreigners.
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8. Farmers were not very well-prepared like the merchants but they represented 80 percent of the population. Their wants were: abolishment of aşar and Reji (tobacco monopoly); increase of the agricultural credits; facilities in transportation, forestry, agricultural machines, vocational training; solving the security problem (uprisings).
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9. Industrialists wanted protection of the domestic industry through the customs; tax exemption in importing machines and equipments; rearrangement of Law of promoting the industry; establishment of an industrial bank; education and training in industry; rearranging chambers of industry.
Workers (amele) made proposals about working time for 8 hours; paid leave; security measures; aid in the cases of illness, marriage, birth; job secuirty; all the new jobs be given to Turks; 1st of May be the holiday. There were females in this group. Their demand for a better salary and working condititons were NOT taken into notice by the merchants and industrialists group.
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10. In the Congress, the principles and objectives regarding nationalizing the economy were specified, displaying a spirit of national enterprise.
These decisions had a major role in socio-economic and political formation of the Republic of Turkey.
The goal of the Congress was to bring about an agreement on the national economic policy which would be put into practice among the government staff, landowners, traders, and industrialists (which were few in number).
Thus, this Congress was of vital importance in terms of the desire of the military-bureaucrats to have a political and social relationship with the proprietary classes (üretim araçları sahipleri) and enhance these relationships with consensus.
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11. Other decisions included
Main principles in the congress were independency, national sovereignty, developing national domestic production, prohibiting luxury imports, permitting foreign capital provided that it contributed to economic development, annulling the administration of Reji, the company which held the tobacco monopoly.
Other decisions included
remitting the tithe (land tax) levy and replacing it with an applicable tax, and
declaring the customs tariffs in order to protect the domestic market from competition with overseas goods
establishing an industrial bank which would provide credit to the industrialists, and
adopting the law for encouragement of industry and having it extended five years later for the next 25 years.
The decisions of the Economic Congress in Izmir are considered the basic provisions of a conservative and nationalist economic policy aiming to achieve improvement of the country by providing the governmental support for private enterprise.
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12. A passage from Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s opening speech in Izmir Economic Congress
“There can be no political independence without economic independence and the national sovereignty should be supported by financial sovereignty”.
"There is a reality left over from the filter of the history and experience. If the history of Turks is examined, it could be seen that the comedowns and breakdowns were resulted from the economic reasons. All the victories and failures are related to the economic conditions... Our people destroyed the enemy’s armies. For total independency, there is a rule: the national sovereignty should be supported by financial sovereignty. The unique force which will take us to this objective is economy. No matter how great the political and military victories, they cannot be enduring unless they are crowned with economic victories. Who conquers with swords is doomed to be defeated, and finally leaves his place to who conquers with cultivators”.
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13. The Treaty of Lausanne
July 1923: The Treaty of Lausanne was a peace treaty that settled the conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the occupying countries (the Allies)-UK, France, Italy, Japan, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Jougaslavia, Portugeese, Belgium. This treaty recognized the sovereignty of the new Republic of Turkey as the successor state of the defunct Ottoman Empire.
Treaty of Lausanne included political, economic, and social clauses. The Treaty abolished the dependency of the country on foreign actors, and underlined the political and economic independence. The clauses of this treaty are as follows:
Abolishment of capitulations and concessions given to foreigners
Ottoman Debts
Customs issues
War Losses
Demographic exchange
The problem of Musul and Iraq border
The position of Hatay and Syrian border
Aegean Islands and Greek border
The Straits
Foreign Schools
Patriarchate of the Orthodox
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14. All the capitulations, (economic and legal) given to the foreigners were abolished by this treaty. From then on, the foreigners would have economic activities according to the country’s amended laws. Concession for cabotage were also abolished. Coastal shipping rights were only for the Turkish ships. This increased the prices of transportation and freight and speeded up the flee of foreign capital.
Ottoman debts in 1923 was million liras. Of that, million was Turkey’s share. Turkey was supposed to pay 5.8 million annually. The payment would start in But later in 1928, the debt payment was re-arranged by the League of Nations (the forerunner of the UN). According to the new arrangement, Turkey would pay 62 percent of the debts which occurred before 1912, and 79 percent of the debts which occured after The negotiations lasted in In the end, it was decided that Turkey would pay only 8 million gold lira. Turkey paid all its debts by May 1954.
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15. 3) Customs tariffs were one of the most discussed topics
3) Customs tariffs were one of the most discussed topics. It was decided that Turkey would continue the 1916 regime for a period of five years. 4) Turkey didnt have to pay any war losses/compensations to the other countries. Turkey only had to pay to Greece. This clause was solved by giving Karaağaç (and Bosnaköy) to Greece. 5) Demographic exchange was a big problem between Turkey and Greece. About 2 million people changed places (mübadele= population exchange). 1 million 300 thousand Rums (Turkish Greeks) went to Greece and 400 thousand Turks came to Turkey from Greece. Deportation of Greeks, emigration of Armenians and Jews (1922, ) who had dominated urban economic life, caused a shortage of skilled labor and entrepreneurs. 6) The problem of Musul is related with petroleum. No result happened by the treaty. Later in 1926, by the Treaty in Ankara, the borders with Irak were set; and 10 percent of the annual petroleum revenues will be given to Turkey for 25 years. Irak borders were set. 7) Hatay Province first remained a part of Syria then gained its independence in 1938 then by a referandum joined Turkey in 1939.
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16. 8) Aegean Islands: a) Gökçeada and Bozcaada will be given to Turkey as autonomous places. Then this autonomy was abolished. B) all the Aegean Islands were given to Italy. Sevres Treaty had given the 12 Islands to Italy who had invaded Rhodes and the 12 Islands before, in All the islands passed to the Allies in 1945, and then transferred to Greece in ) The regime of the Straits continued for 13 years. According to the Treaty, non-military ships and planes could pass the Straits. Both sides of the Straits should be disarmed. The transition through the Straits should be governed by an international council presided by a Turkish authority. Thus no foreign and also no Turkish armies are allowed to pass through the Straits. This provision was changed by the Montreux Convention in ) Foreign schools would continue according to the Republic’s laws. 11) Patriarchate of the Orthodox would stay in Istanbul but wouldn’t have any political authorities.
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17. The Turkish Economy during the 1920s
For development the new state established a number of institutes to carry out the economic policies and principles. In 1926, The Central Statistical Department; in 1928, the Ministry of Economics, in 1929, National Economic and Saving Society (Milli İktisat ve Tasarruf Cemiyeti) were founded. Public Finance The aim of the fiscal policy of the Republic was a balanced budget. The government was very keen on that. The financial situation of the new state was quite weak due to consecutive wars. Revenues were mainly from the indirect taxes of the monopoly goods such as salt, tobacco, sugar. New taxes were imposed and the old ones were increased. (pg.39, table III.1) The revenues of Duyun-u Umumiye and the output of Reji administration were confiscated, which made an addition to the public revenues. 1.5 million liras were taken from Ottoman Bank and Ziraat Bank (banks during the Ottoman governed by foreigners) each. 1 million gold lira from Russia was received and used during the independence war period. 300,000 gold liras were donated by the Moslems in India. This amount was transferred to the finance and 250,000 of that amount was used for the establishment of Işbank. The expenditures were directed to ipublic works (bayındırlık) especially infrastructure (more railways besides the taken-over ones from the foreigners); national defense; foreign debt payments. Nationalization proceeded very slowly during the Atatürk period due to the lack of financial means whereas it was speeded up during the İnönü period.
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18. Monetary and Banking Issues
No increase in money supply, in fact a decrease happened. (161 mil. TL in 1923, 159 million TL in 1929).
Foreign capital gradually left Turkey
Use of banknotes started instead of gold liras. Banknotes were issued unbacked.
The government did not have any legal authority in reserving the value of money. Therefore it was left to the conditions of the market.
Due to the trade deficit, the value of lira decreased 4 percent annually. Besides, it was fluctuating in a band of 30 percent. Until 1930, the founding of the Central bank, the value of lira decreased and inflation increased by 4 percent.
Protection of the value of lira was only possible in when the Central Bank was founded and the Law of Protecting the Value of Turkish Currency was enacted and remained in force until 1980s. Türkiye İş Bankası was an important effort for a national banking system.
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19. There was only one state bank, 14 foreign banks and 8 domestic banks in Turkey in 1923.
In six years, 24 privately owned domestic banks joined the financial system by 1929.
State support and the country's economic conditions led to the establishment of a monopolistic banking.
As an almost closed economy without national central bank in an environment in which credit was channelled mainly by foreign banks and credit powers over a long period, there was no chance for private banks to emerge.
Escaping from the financial crises while still learning banking in the early years, and even resisting the effect of the Great Depression of 1929 with almost perfect fiscal discipline, enabled the emergence of a mixed private-public banking system that eased the burden of a financial re-development and re- structuring.
Between 1923 and 1932, more than 20 local banks were gone bust mostly because of the Great Depression.
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20. Agriculture The aim was to increase production
Agriculture The aim was to increase production. For that, government took important measures in taxing, credits, and land proprietorship (ownership). In 1925, Aşar (tithe tax) was abolished. Public aid and assistance were given to the farmers in the fields of producing new products, irrigation methods, providing seeds and fertilizers, and technical assistance and training. Land ownership was very uneven. Miri land was transferred into private land. Land was distributed to landless peasants in 1927 and Nevertheless, the feodal structure in the east and south continued. In 1927, 1st population and agricultural census nd was made: 4 million farmers -82% percent of the labor force employed in agriculture.
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21. No increase in mechanization. Few tractors and machines
No increase in mechanization. Few tractors and machines. There were only 220 tractors in the country. The primitive agricultural production base and underdeveloped market structure prevailed in an underdeveloped socio-economic framework.
Prices of agricultural products were volatile, depending on the weather and labour.
There were problems of marketing the products. So capital accumulation was very slow in agricultural sector.
The agricultural credits were given by Ziraat Bank. Agricultural credit cooperations were founded in
Technical schools, model farms, experimental stations were established.
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22. Industry
Measures in accordance with the Izmir Economic Congress were taken by the government:
establishing Sanayi and Maadin Bankası (Industry and Mining Bank) in 1925 for credits and co- partnerships; enacting the law of Promoting Industry (sanayii teşvik yasası) in 1927; protecting the domestic industry by credits, partnerships, and duty- free imports of machines and inputs; gaining independence in setting the custom duties in 1929.
Main industrial activities: processing agricultural products, mining, and weaving.
The State had full ownership and control of raw materials, petroleum, railways, major seaport facilities, mining.
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23. 12.6% of resources were imported.
In 1927, the population was 13.7 million, with high child and mother mortality rates.
78 percent of the population lived in the rural. 82 percent of the working population was in agriculture; 6 percent in industry; 5 percent in trade; 7 percent in services.
1927 consensus: 65 thousand firms. 36% of firms were micro firms (1 person), and 0.23% of firms had workers more than Child labor was extensively seen. The total number of workers who worked in the firms which each had more than 9 workers was 147,128 people percent of this number was below 14 years old!
12.6% of resources were imported.
Demand for necessity goods was met by imports. Domestic sugar production could meet only 14.5% of demand. Rest was imported. 41.5% of textiles and garments were imported.
Efforts for domestic production started. Ex: In 1929, in Istanbul –Tophane, an automobile factory to be established by Ford but not possible due to the 1929 depression.
However, the Turkish bourgeoisie during this period lagged far behind the state’s expectations of rapid industrialization. The state began to assume an even greater role and complete control over the national economy. This could be seen in the number of state-owned entreprises which was 470 in and was 1473 in 1933.
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24. Of the numerous obstacles to the industrialization of the country during this period, two were decisive: the resistance of the landlords in areas where their interests were threatened by industrial expansion; and the failure of the expected transformation of Turkish compradors (big merchants) into industrial capitalists.
The landlords resisted industrialization efforts which was a part of modernization. Because existing relations of production (ağalık sistemi) were kept intact in the countryside, and the economic, political and socio-religious strength of the landlords (ağalar and derebeyleri) and their domination over local branches of the state initiated credit unions and producer cooperatives continued.
The financial resources provided by the state directed toward the peasants were all diverted to the landlords’ own private accounts. Thus landlords further enriched themselves and landless peasants became “serfs”.
Landlord-clergy men(din adamlarının gerici olanları) coalition succeeded in blocking the expansion of the industry in the rural. Thus, control of vast areas of Anatolia was left to the hands of those landlords.
The commercial bourgeoisie in the towns and cities was reluctant to expand into the industrial sector, despite the state’s encouragement through credits, grants, and numerous concessions. Some did ‘paper’ businesses . Heavy machinery imported for the establishment of new industries was exported to other countries by those men!
Thus the profits made by the merchants were generally employed in usury and commerce, not industrial production.
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25. Railways were nationalized and more railways were built.
Transportation
Railways were nationalized and more railways were built.
The Cabotage Law was issued in As a result, Turkish shipping trade and transportation developed. But the prices were high.
In 1926, with an agreement with Junkers, a small factory to fix the planes was established. In 1927, it repaired the military planes ­A–20, F–13, G–23. But the factory had to close down due to the severe economic conditions. In 1931, it reopened as Kay­se­ri Tay­ya­re Fab­ri­ka­sı.
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26. International Trade
During the period, exports decreased, imports increased. The policy was balance in foreign trade.
The fall in export prices were sharper than the fall in import prices, so terms of trade deteriorated.
At the end of the period there was trade surplus due to a sharp decrease in imports.
Turkey remained as a supplier of raw materials and agricultural products and an importer of manufactured consumer products in the 1920s. However, Turkey recovered quickly. Agricultural output rose by 87 percent from 1923 to Industry and services grew more than 9 percent from 1923 to 1929.The industry in the country met only the very basic needs. Global conditions didnt help either. The Great Depression in 1929 affected Turkey deeply. A decline in the prices of agricultural products which were exported affected the balance of trade negatively. A devaluation in the lira happened.
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27. International Trade Exports Imports Balance 1923 85 145 -60 1924 159
194
1925
192
241
-49
1926
187
235
-48
1927
158
211
-53
1928
173
223
-50
1929
155
256
-101
1930
151
147 +4
1931
127
126 +1
1932
101 86
+15
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28. Foreign investment The Republic nationalized the railways, ports, mining sector, water, electricity, gas and telecommunication facilities which were held by privileged foreign companies. Nonetheless, foreign investment was present through the partnerships with the Turks. 66% of 201 Turkish incorporated company (Co.Inc) belonged to foreign capital. Foreign capital constituted 43% of the total capital in Turkey. Foreign capital was mainly in the fields of weaving, food, cement, electricity, gas.
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29. National Product
The new Republic had its hands full with very radical political reforms in the initial years. But despite the serious political questions as well as uprisings or religious resurrections of reactionary groups and forces, economic growth was remarkably high during the first years. There was an average yearly growth rate of 9.6% for the first seven years. One reason for this high rate is obviously the very low GNP in due to the destruction and disruption of production during the war. Nevertheless Turkey recovered quickly.
Agricultural output rose by 87 % during Industry and services grew more than 9% during
The industry barely met the very basic needs. Global conditions didn’t help either. The Great Depression in affected Turkey deeply. A decline in the prices of agricultural products which were exported affected the balance of trade negatively. A devaluation in the lira happened.
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30. National Product
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
Agriculture
39.8
47.6
48.6
49.0
41.4
44,3
51,9
Industry
13,2
9,9
9,7
10,1
13,0
11,6
Trade
7,8
7,1
7,2
7,0
8,0
7,3
6,3
Other Services
39,2
35,4
35,1
33,2
37,6
36,8
31,9
NP, mil. TL
952.6
1023.8
1525.6
1650.5
1471.2
1632.5
2073.1
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31. was called the Atatürk Period, and was called the İnönü Period. During the first years of the New Republic, the government decidedly gave the priority to the carrying out of the major political, economic, social and cultural reforms, as well as the prevention of uprisings and insurrections of religious reactionary groups who were more against laicism than the Republic, and against the abolishment of caliphate and acceptance of European codes.
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32. Some economists have evaluated the economic policy executed by the government during as a ‘liberal era’. In fact, the economic policy was oriented to create a national economy with the nation-state concept. It was a capitalistic national economy. Private ownership of means of production was stressed both in Izmir Economic Congress and in other announcements. In that end, the state supported private sector; and the state itself sometimes acted as an economic actor in the market to boost the industry for the private sector. Consequently, such a model in which the state both determine the investor and act as the greatest actor in the market may not be called a “liberal model”.
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33. Education
In April 1924 a New Constitution was accepted that still retained the statement that Turkey was an Islamic state, but the abolishment of the caliphate required the abolishment of the Sharia Ministry and the religious courts. Medrese’s and other theological higher schools should be dismantled.
Then in 1924 the Law of the Unification of Education (Tevhid-i Tedrisat) was accepted.
To fill the void, faculties (departments) of theology were to be opened up in universities and new intermediate schools for training imams and preachers would be tied to the new Ministry of National Education.
Foreign schools were also brought under the control of the said Ministry.
Number of students in thousands in 1923 and 1929: elementary ; secondary 5,9-25,4; lycee 1,2-4,7; vocational- technical 6,5-8,2; high (univ) 2,9-3,6 (pg. 51)
In 1928, reform of Letter (harf devrimi). All writing and reading was radically changed from Arabic letters to Turkish letters.
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34. Supplementary Information
1921 Anayasası
Kanun-u Esasîsini yürürlükten kaldırmamıstır.
2. Kendi degistirilis usûlünü öngörmemistir. Dolayısıyla 1921 Anayasası tarihimizdeki
ilk ve tek “yumusak anayasa”dır.
3. Türk tarihinde ilk defa “millî egemenlik ilkesi”ni ilân etmistir.
4. Meclis hükümeti sistemini kurmustur. Yani yasama ve yürütme kuvvetleri mecliste
toplanmıstır.
5. Yasama ve yürütme yetkisi mecliste toplandıgı için Meclis hükümeti söz
konusudur.
6. cra vekilleri (bakanlar) dogrudan dogruya Meclis tarafından seçiliyordu.
6. Devlet baskanlıgı, Basbakanlık yoktur.
7. Yerinden yönetim ilkesine büyük önem vermistir.
8. Birinci Meclis, Nisan 1923’te dagılmıstır. Yerine Haziran-Temmuz 1923’te kinci
Meclis seçilmistir.
9. Cumhuriyet, Anayasanın 1’inci maddesinin degistirilmesi suretiyle 29 Ekim 1923’te
ilân edilmistir.
10. Hangi ilin baskent olacagı karar verilmemistir.
11. Milletvekili seçimlerini 2 yılda bir yapılmasını öngörmüstür.
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35. Meclis tarafından yapılmıstır. 2. 1924 Anayasası katı bir anayasa dır.
Anayasası, kurtulus savasını yürüten Birinci Meclis tarafından degil, kinci
Meclis tarafından yapılmıstır.
Anayasası katı bir anayasa dır.
3. lk sekline göre devletin resmî dini var idi; o da slam diniydi. Bu hüküm 1928’de
Anayasada çıkarılmıs yerine lâiklik ilkesi 1937 yılında konulmustur.
4. CHP’nin “altı umde”si, veya Atatürkçülügün ilkeleri olarak bilinen ilkeler 1937
yılında Anayasaya dahil edilmistir.
Anayasası göre Cumhurbaskanının görev süresi, yedi yıl degil, TBMM’nin
secim devresi (yani 4 yıl) kadardır. Ancak seçilen Cumhurbaskanı tekrar seçilebilir.
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36. birligi ve görevler ayrılıgı sistemi” ismi verilmektedir.
Anayasası, bir karma hükûmet sistemi benimsemistir ki buna “kuvvetler
birligi ve görevler ayrılıgı sistemi” ismi verilmektedir.
Anayasası olaganüstü mahkeme kurulmasını yasaklamamıs ve “kanunî hâkim
ilkesi”ni tam olarak kabul etmemistir.
Anayasası, temel hak ve hürriyetler alanında tabiî hak doktrininden
esinlenmistir.
9. Cumhuriyet döneminde çok partili hayata 1946 yılında Demokrat Partinin
kurulmasıyla geçilmistir.
Anayasası, “çogulcu” degil, “çogunlukçu demokrasi anlayısı”na sahiptir.
Anayasasının dili 1945 yılında öz Türkçelestirildi, ama 1952 yılında eski
metin tekrar yürürlüge konuldu.
12. Cumhuriyet döneminde iktidar degisimi 1950 seçimleriyle olmustur
Anayasasına, 27 Mayıs 1960 askerî darbesiyle son verilmistir.
1924 Anayasasının resmî adının “Anayasa” degil, “Teskilât-ı Esasiye Kanunu”
oldugunu hatırlatalım Anayasası ikinci dönem TBMM tarafından üçte iki çogunlukla 20
Nisan 1340 (1924) günü kabul edildi.
Anayasanın Üstünlügü.- Öncelikle belirtelim ki, 1924 Anayasası, 1876 Kanun-u
Esasîsini ve 1921 Anayasasını açıkça yürürlükten kaldırıyordu (m. 104 ). Böylece 1921
Anayasası döneminde yasanan “ikili anayasal düzen” son buluyordu. “Anayasanın üstünlügü
ilkesi” 1924 Anayasasının 103’üncü maddesinde açıkça ilân edilmistir. Ancak bu dönemde
kanunların Anayasası uygunlugunu denetleyecek bir Anayasa Mahkemesi yoktur. Yargıtay ve
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