Lecture Slides THE ENJOYMENT OF MUSIC SHORTER EDITION by

Lecture Slides THE ENJOYMENT OF MUSIC SHORTER EDITION by
Prelude 3: Music as Exploration and Drama 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Music as Exploration and Drama
Prelude 3 Music as Exploration and Drama

Music as Exploration and Drama
Composers in 1600s and early 1700s sought to develop approaches to “ramp up” emotional states Interest in how music can enhance words Opera Expressive power of purely instrumental music Early part of the period interest in extremes Later emphasis on predictability During the 1600s and early 1700s, composers sought to develop approaches to “ramp up” the emotional states aroused by music. Composers became increasingly interested in how music could enhance words in the most expressive manner possible, which led to the development of opera. There was also a new interest in the expressive power of purely instrumental music, without reliance on vocal music or dance. The early part of the period is characterized by an intense interest in musical extremes and intense expression. Later Baroque music placed more emphasis on predictable forms and procedures.

Prelude 3: Music as Exploration and Drama

“Baroque” Art and Culture
1600–1750 The New World, Galileo, Copernicus, Descartes, Spinoza, Harvey, Newton “Baroque” means “misshapen” David statues Michelangelo’s is contemplative Bernini’s is in mid-shot Absolute Monarchs Louis XIV Musical culture of the middle class Musical works created for specific, immediate use The years 1600–1750 were a time of change, adventure, and discovery. The conquest of the New World, along with developments in science and philosophy thanks to Galileo, Copernicus, Descartes, Spinoza, Harvey, Newton, and others, were the markers of a new era. The extravagance of Baroque art is a fitting projection of the pomp and splendor of the period. “Baroque,” which means “misshapen” or “distorted,” is the name given to the period by the following generation, who saw it as excessively extravagant. The Baroque flair for the dramatic is revealed by comparing two statues of the biblical figure David. In the Renaissance statue by Michelangelo, David is poised, reflective, and has just slain Goliath. In Bernini’s baroque statue of David, we find him mid-shot, muscles flexed, torso twisted, about to deliver the fatal stone. While both are stunningly lifelike, Bernini’s is dynamic in ways that Michaelangelo’s is not. This was the age of absolute monarchs, and perhaps the best example is King Louis XIV of France. To him, art and culture served the ruler, and he maintained an elaborate musical establishment. Other courts looked to Louis’s as a model, and musicians benefitted accordingly. Excluded from the musical salons of the aristocracy, the middle classes created a culture of their own. They made music in their homes and were the audience for two important genres of social critique: comic opera and the novel. Composers in the Baroque were employed by royalty, churches, or city administrations, and their works were created for specific, immediate, practical use.

Main Currents in Baroque Music
Shift from polyphony (two or more melodic lines are combined) to homophony (a single “voice” takes over the melodic interest, while the accompanying lines are subordinate) Florentine Camerata (writers, artists, and musicians of Florence, Italy) Figured bass, basso continuo Major-minor tonality Equal temperament Opera Continuous expansion of melody Dissonance as expressive device Music ought to arouse emotions One of the most significant characteristics of the early Baroque style was the shift from polyphony to homophony as the dominant texture. This shift was part of the forging of a new style, first cultivated around 1600 by a group of Florentine writers, artists, and musicians known as the Camerata. At the heart of this new style was a melody that moved freely over a foundation of simple chords. These chords were improvised over a figured bass, and this system, known as basso continuo, provided a foundation over which a melody could unfold. The system of tonality began to emerge during this era, with its powerful drive toward the tonic goal, as did a new tuning system, called equal temperament, which equalized the distance between tones. This made it possible to play in any major or minor key without unpleasant tuning problems, greatly expanding the available harmonic possibilities. The members of the Florentine Camerata were excited about their new homophonic music, which they called the “expressive style,” and soon applied it not just to short poems but to an entire drama, an innovation they called “drama through music” which today we call opera. The Baroque melodic concept was one of continuous expansion. A movement might start with a striking musical figure which would then be continually varied and developed throughout. Baroque composers used dissonant chords more frequently than their Renaissance predecessors, in the name of heightened expression. Dynamic contrasts were also used for the same purpose. In general, music in the Baroque sought to arouse emotions in the listener, one emotion (affect) at a time, one per movement. This is in contrast to later styles, which shift emotion more frequently.

The Rise of the Virtuoso Musician
Instrument builders improved instruments Performers responded with virtuosic technique Composers responded by demanding more advanced techniques Vocal virtuosity Castrati (high male voices) Women expanded their role Improvisation skills expected As instrument builders improved instruments, performers responded with more virtuosic technique. In turn, composers began writing works demanding these new technical standards. In the vocal realm, virtuosity was found in opera arias, especially those sung by castrati (males castrated before puberty in order to ensure that their voices would stay high; since the main male heroic roles were written for these high voices, a castrato had a good chance at a career in opera). Women’s roles in music expanded in the Baroque, especially in opera. Women could become star singers, and a few women (such as Caccini and Strozzi) became published and prolific composers.

An All-European Art Voyages spawned exoticism
Operas set in faraway lands Appeal to the imagination Also much exchange among European national cultures The best parts of local traditions blended together to create an all-European style As Europeans voyaged they discovered ways of life different from their own, spawning an interest in exoticism. Operas were set in faraway lands, not necessarily authentically but nonetheless appealing to the imagination. There was also significant exchange among European national cultures. Italian, German, and English styles all had distinctive features, which began to blend together as the era progressed. These styles borrowed from one another, creating an all-European style.

Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis
Lecture Slides THE ENJOYMENT OF MUSIC SHORTER EDITION 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 20: Voicing the Virgin: Cozzolani and Italian Baroque Sacred Music 12TH EDITION ● Music has often been a means through which marginalized individuals and groups can express their perspective to the broader society. ● Women in seventeenthcentury Italian convents were dedicated to singing as an integral part of their role as spiritual servants and advocates. ● Nuns adapted standard vocal music scorings to their needs by transposing parts and adding instruments. ● Chiara Margarita Cozzolani, a Benedictine nun who was a musician and composer, was one of a few whose works were published and circulated beyond the convent. Her Magnificat exemplifies both a common genre and an individual approach to text setting. by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 20: Voicing the Virgin: Cozzolani and Italian Baroque Sacred Music

Voicing the Virgin: Cozzolani and Italian Baroque Sacred Music
Today we try to acknowledge the importance of diverse voices and perspectives During times when certain groups are excluded from equal opportunity, those creative voices can be extremely powerful Today we try to acknowledge the importance of diverse voices and perspectives. During times when certain groups are excluded from equal opportunity, those creative voices can be extremely powerful, as we shall see from the experience of religious women in seventeenth-century Italy.

Nuns and Music in Baroque Italy
Baroque era few outlets for creative women Professional singers’ morality often in question Secret musical world within convents of seventeenth-century Italy Men did not sing polyphony with the nuns Benedictine convent of St. Radegona in Milan Dignitaries and visitors filled the church to hear nuns sing Chiara Margarita Cozzolani (1602-c. 1676) - Came from a wealthy Milanese merchant family, but decided to enter the convent and profess her final vows at the age of eighteen - Composer for the convent of St. Radegona in Milan - Composed motets, four-voice mass, and the Magnificat, NOT the secular cantata The Baroque era offered few outlets for creative women. A handful of women made a name for themselves as professional singers, but their morality was often in question (unfairly) as a result. There was, however, a secret musical world for woman musicians within the convents of seventeenth-century Italy. In particular, the Benedictine convent of St. Radegona in Milan had a renowned musical establishment. Dignitaries and visitors filled the church to hear the nuns sing. Of particular note at this convent was Chiara Margarita Cozzolani.

Cozzolani’s Magnificat (LG10)
The canticle of Mary is generally known as the Magnificat The Magnificat occurs during the service of Vespers Performing forces for the Magnificat – two choirs, two soprano soloist, organ, strings The prayer of praise to God at the end of the Magnificat is called the Doxology. Chiara Margarita Cozzolani (1602–c. 1676) was director of one of St. Radegona’s choirs and was a renowned composer, publishing three wide-ranging collections of music. Among these were two large-scale works called Magnificats, with a text about the Virgin Mary. Men did not sing polyphony with the nuns, and so these performances would have been all-female. Cozzolani’s setting of the Magnificat text is dramatic and mystical, a perfect demonstration of her compositional prowess.

Interface: The Musical World of the Convent
Women had few choices Entering a convent only suitable alternative to marriage Convent provided basic education, including music Music primary vehicle for contact with outside world Many convents became famous for their excellent musical establishments Women had very few choices beyond domestic life in the seventeenth century; entering a convent was the only suitable alternative to marriage. Convents provided a basic education, including training in music. Many convents, such as St. Radegona, became famous for their excellent musical establishments.

Chapter 21: Performing Grief: Purcell and Early Opera 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 21: Performing Grief: Purcell and Early Opera
● The most important new genre of the Baroque era was opera, a large-scale music drama that combines poetry, acting, scenery, and costumes with singing and instrumental music. ● The principal components of opera include the orchestral overture, solo arias (lyrical songs) and recitatives (speechlike declamations of the text), and ensemble numbers, including choruses. ● The text of an opera is called a libretto. The earliest opera libretti were base on mythology, epic poetry, and ancient history. ● Henry Purcell wrote Dido and Aeneas, based on The Aeneid, a Roman epic by Virgil. The closing Lament by Dido is a powerful expression of grief that reflects contemporary ideals about womanhood.

Performing Grief: Purcell and Early Opera
Opera not meant for realistic depiction, rather, “hyper-reality” Strong emotions portrayed through music Music still used to enhance narrative media Opera was never meant for realistic depiction; people in everyday life do not typically break into song. Instead, opera presents a “hyper-reality,” one in which strong emotions are portrayed through music. Even today music is still used to enhance narrative media—movies, television, and video games all use music for this purpose.

The Components of Opera
Opera: large-scale drama that is sung Involves vocal and instrumental music, poetry, acting, scenery, and costumes Plot advanced through speech-like recitative (a vocal style in opera that imitates the natural inflections of speech) Arias are tuneful emotional releases Ensemble numbers and choruses Orchestra provides an overture (musical introduction at the beginning of the opera) and sinfonias (musical interludes between scenes) Librettist writes the script of the opera Originally called “drama in music,” opera is a large-scale drama that is sung. Operas integrate many art forms: vocal and instrumental music, poetry, acting, scenery, and costumes. In traditional opera, plot is advanced through a speechlike singing style called recitative. Interspersed are tuneful emotional releases called arias. Arias are songlike, and narrative time often stops while the singer emotes. Operas also feature ensemble numbers in which several characters sing simultaneously; this simultaneous expression of often contradictory reactions to a shared situation can be very dynamic. Some operas also contain choral numbers; the chorus is sometimes featured in crowd scenes or sometimes functions in the same manner as the chorus in Greek tragedies. In addition to accompanying the singers, the orchestra provides an overture, sinfonias, and other incidental music. The script of an opera is called its libretto, and the person who writes it is a librettist.

Early Opera in Italy Early opera an outgrowth of Renaissance theatrical traditions Lavish spectacles Monteverdi’s Orfeo (1607) an example. Monteverdi is regarded as the first master of opera. By 1642 public opera houses open in Venice Widespread entertainment By 1700, Italian opera popular in Germany, England, and Austria NOT France Early opera in Italy was an outgrowth of Renaissance theatrical traditions, lavish spectacles performed for royal weddings and esteemed guests. Monteverdi’s opera Orfeo (1607) is an example of this kind of closed-door spectacle. By 1642, the first public opera houses had opened in Venice, and Monteverdi’s Coronation of Poppea is a good exemplar of the way in which opera changed as a result of becoming widespread entertainment. Plots no longer featured mythological characters but focused instead on love triangles and historical figures. Entertainment and titillation was the rule. By 1700 Italian opera was popular throughout Europe, even in non-Italian-speaking countries. The only exception to this preference was France, which was developing its own national tradition.

Opera in England Early seventeenth-century masques popular among aristocracy Combined vocal and instrumental music with poetry and dance Commonwealth period stage plays forbidden Plays set to music could be passed off as a “concert” This is the tradition behind England’s first operas Opera in England developed out of an early seventeenth-century dramatic spectacle called the masque. Masques were popular among the aristocracy, and combined vocal and instrumental music with poetry and dance. During the Commonwealth period, stage plays were forbidden (they were supposedly “of the devil”). However, plays set to music were quite often passed off as a “concert,” thus getting around the prohibition. It is this tradition that was behind England’s first operas.

Dido and Aeneas (LG11) Henry Purcell (1659–1695)
- Greatest native-born English composer of the Baroque Era Various English court posts, masques and operas for several venues; assimilated Italian & French styles First performed at a London girls’ school Based on part of Virgil’s epic poem Aeneid Librettist – Nahum Tate Last act features a lively hornpipe and concludes with a lament over a ground bass Henry Purcell (1659–1695) had various English court posts throughout his career. He wrote masques and operas for several venues, some associated with the court and others not. Purcell skillfully assimilated the disparate and competing Italian & French operatic styles and combined them with the English tradition of choral singing. Dido and Aeneas was first performed at a London girls’ school where Purcell was employed. The story was based on part of Virgil’s Aeneid and tells the story of the hero Aeneas, who becomes shipwrecked on the island of Carthage. He and Dido, the queen of Carthage, fall in love. A meddling witch is unhappy with this new development and intervenes by tricking Aeneas into believing he is being called back to battle. Choosing duty over love, Aeneas leaves, and Dido dies of a broken heart. The last act features a lively dance called a hornpipe and concludes with Dido’s lamentation of her fate, an expressive tour de force set over a ground bass

Chapter 22: Musical Sermons: Bach and the Lutheran Cantata 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 22: Musical Sermons: Bach and the Lutheran Cantata
● Lutheran musical worship is structured around congregational hymns, known as chorales, which are specific to each Sunday service. ● The church cantatas of Johann Sebastian Bach were mostly written for the Lutheran church service; they are multimovement works with solo arias, recitatives, and choruses, all with orchestral accompaniment. ● Bach’s cantata Wachet auf (Sleepers, Awake) is based on a well-known Lutheran chorale tune.

Musical Sermons: Bach and the Lutheran Cantata
Protestant reformers Luther and Calvin thought worship (including service music) belonged to the congregation Luther also believed professional musicians could supplement by providing polyphony As sermons are elaborations of a bible reading, Lutheran cantatas were an elaboration of the weekly hymn The Protestant reformers Martin Luther and Jean Calvin thought worship (including service music) belonged to the congregation and should be performed by them, sung in unison. Unlike Calvin, Luther was a fan of polyphony in general and Josquin in particular, so he believed professional musicians should supplement the congregational singing by providing polyphony. Sermons were elaborations of Bible readings, and by extension Lutheran cantatas were an elaboration of the weekly hymn (which was usually also related to the bible reading).

The Lutheran Chorale and Cantata
Congregational singing of weekly hymns (chorales) Sung in unison by congregation and in four-part harmony by the choir Eventually new poetry substituted for inner stanzas, elaboration of the message Called Lutheran cantata The Lutheran tradition was firmly rooted in the singing of weekly hymns, which Martin Luther called chorales. These chorales were to the Lutheran church what plainchant was to the Catholics. Lutheran chorales were first and foremost to be sung by the congregation, in unison, partially as group affirmation. While his counterpart Jean Calvin rejected polyphony in church, Luther was a fan of Josquin’s work in particular and polyphony in general, so Luther encouraged the cultivation of harmonized versions of his chorales, to be sung by the choir alongside the congregation. Eventually new poetry was substituted for the inner stanzas of a chorale, and that poetry served as an elaboration of the week’s message. Taken as a whole, the polyphonic chorale plus new poetry was called the Lutheran cantata.

Bach and the Lutheran Cantata
During J. S. Bach’s time, the cantata was related to the Gospel reading for the day Bach’s cantatas typically five to eight movements The first, last, and usually one middle movement were full-ensemble numbers fashioned from the chorale tune Interspersed were solo or duet arias and recitatives During J. S. Bach’s time, the cantata was related to the Gospel reading for the day. Bach’s cantatas are typically five to eight movements. The first, last, and usually one middle movement were full-ensemble numbers fashioned from the chorale tune. Interspersed among these pillars were solo or duet arias and recitatives.

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750)
Culminating figure of the Baroque style From long tradition of Lutheran organists Organist to duke of Weimar 1708–1717 Wrote much important organ music Composer for prince of Cöthen 1717–1723 Suites, concertos, sonatas, keyboard music Cantor at St. Thomas Church in Leipzig 1723–1750 Supervised music at four churches and directed the collegium musicum Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750) was the culminating figure of the Baroque style. Bach came from a long family tradition of Lutheran organists, and his first noteworthy job was as organist to the duke of Weimar, from 1708 to Since this was an organist position, Bach wrote much important music for that instrument while at Weimar. Next, Bach became a composer for the prince of Cöthen, from 1717 to This was a secular post, and required no sacred music from Bach. Therefore, he concentrated his efforts on suites, concertos, sonatas, and other keyboard and instrumental music while in Cöthen. Bach’s biggest job was in Leipzig, from 1723 to 1750, where he was cantor at St. Thomas Church. This was a position with massive responsibilities, not the least of which was supervision of music at the town’s biggest four churches. Bach also taught singers at the church school and even directed a university ensemble called the collegium musicum.

Wachet auf (Sleepers, Awake)
LG12 Written in 1731 Parable of the Wise and Foolish Virgins Matthew 25:1–3 Hymn by Philipp Nicolai, uses tune in three of seven movements Chorale in AAB (bar) form Bach originally composed the cantata Wachet auf (LG12) in 1731, and probably reused it from time to time. The gospel reading for the day was from Matthew 25:1–3, the parable of the wise and foolish virgins, about vigilance and preparedness for the return of Christ. The chorale Wachet auf—in typical aab, or bar form —was composed by Philipp Nicolai. Bach uses Nicolai’s tune in three of the seven movements of his Wachet auf cantata. The other movements are recitative/duet pairs that dramatize the arrival of Christ/the bridegroom.

Chapter 23: Textures of Worship: Handel and the English Oratorio 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 23: Textures of Worship: Handel and the English Oratorio
● The oratorio is a large-scale dramatic genre with a sacred text performed by solo voices, chorus, and orchestra; it is not staged or costumed. ● Originally conceived to put forth the message of the Catholic Church, the oratorio bears many similarities to opera. ● George Frideric Handel built his career as a composer of Italian-style opera; later in life, he invented the English oratorio, combining elements of Italian and English musical style. ● Handel’s oratorios (including Messiah) have remained popular up to the present day.

Textures of Worship: Handel and the English Oratorio
Handel’s Messiah performed continuously for more than two and a half centuries Handel combined musical resources of his day to invent the English oratorio Meeting place of community worship and the grandeur and glory of power During the Baroque and even after, musical works had a very short shelf life. They were written for immediate use and then became dispensable. Audiences and patrons were interested in hearing new music, not old. However, Handel’s oratorio Messiah has been performed continuously for more than two and a half centuries. Handel invented the English oratorio, combining disparate musical resources of his day to create something new and, evidently, with lasting appeal. Handel’s English oratorios are at the unusual meeting place of community worship and the grandeur and glory of power.

The Oratorio Early oratorios were Catholic sacred plays with music presented in public meeting places Like an opera on a biblical theme, but not staged Handel adapted elements of Catholic oratorio, Italian opera, and English choral music to invent the English oratorio English oratorios not church-sponsored; designed to turn a profit Early, non-English oratorios were Catholic sacred plays with music. These were not presented in church, however, but in public meeting places. These oratorios were very much like opera of the day, with recitatives, arias, orchestral music, and a story, but that story was biblical and there was no acting or costumes. Handel adapted elements of these Catholic oratorios and combined them with Italian opera and English choral music to invent a composite, the English oratorio. One important aspect of this story ought not be overlooked: Handel’s oratorios were not church-sponsored. They were designed to turn a profit, and were simply the next step in Handel’s entrepreneurial enterprises.

George Frideric Handel (1685–1759)
Worldly, cosmopolitan composer Violin in Hamburg opera orchestra Moved to Italy in 1706, composed Italian opera Six years later to London, presenting Italian operas Italian opera fell out of style, so Handel moved on to oratorio J. S. Bach, who we discussed in the last chapter, was born the same year as George Frideric Handel (1685). The two never met, and had completely different career paths. Bach never left Germany, had really very few posts for a musician of his time, and worked squarely within the patronage system he had inherited. Handel, on the other hand, was a worldly, cosmopolitan composer and entrepreneur. After his education, Handel played violin in a Hamburg opera orchestra, and it was there that he caught the opera “bug.” He moved to Italy in 1706 to absorb as much as he could about the Italian operatic tradition, and composed his first Italian operas while there. Six years later Handel moved to London, where he eventually settled permanently, setting up a musical establishment that presented Italian operas to the English public. Eventually Italian opera fell out of fashion with the English public, so Handel moved on to oratorios, making a second career for himself in his adopted city.

Messiah (LG13) 1742 Dublin premiere, composed in twenty-four days
Libretto a compilation of Old and New Testament biblical verses about Christ Soprano aria “Rejoice greatly” Written-out da capo aria “Hallelujah Chorus” closes the second of Messiah’s three parts Messiah had its premiere in Dublin and was performed there a few times before being presented to the English public. Handel worked feverishly on this oratorio, composing the music (some of which is self-borrowed) in only twenty-fourdays. The libretto for Messiah, by Charles Jennens, is a compilation of Old and New Testament verses about Christ. The work is in three large parts: the prophesy of Christ’s coming and his birth; his suffering, death, and the spread of his doctrine; and the redemption of the world through faith. LG13 features two excerpts from Messiah: an aria, drawn from the Italian opera tradition, and a chorus, from the English tradition. The soprano aria “Rejoice greatly” is a written-out da capo aria; the repeat of the A section was typically where Italian singers would improvise and display their virtuosity. Perhaps Handel’s first English oratorio performers were less skilled in this practice than their Italian counterparts, prompting Handel to exercise more control than usual. The second large part of Messiah closes with the rousing and familiar “Hallelujah Chorus,” in which Handel combines tuneful melodies and interesting textures with striking homorhythmic passages.

Chapter 24: Independent Study: Billings and the North American Sacred Tradition 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 24: Independent Study: Billings and the North American Sacred Tradition
● Colonists in New England took part in congregational hymn singing, which often involved a callandresponse practice called liningout. ● Some congregations later fostered choirs that developed more elaborate, notationbased singing traditions. ● By the end of the 1700s, a tradition of singing schools had developed in North America: William Billings’s anthem David’s Lamentation is an example of a work composed for congregational singing.

Independent Study: Billings and the North American Sacred Tradition
Basic musical literacy in North America is comparatively high Long tradition of formal and informal music teaching (especially self-study) Today basic musical literacy in North America is comparatively high. This is in part due to a long tradition of formal and informal music teaching, including self-study.

From “Lining-Out” to Singing Schools
New England Pilgrims and Puritans sang psalms by lining-out Leader sings each line, congregation repeats it No need for individual psalm books or literacy Church leaders unhappy with sloppiness and musical illiteracy Sponsored singing schools to teach music reading Led to scandalous polyphonic singing in church The Calvinist-inspired Pilgrims and Puritans of New England sang psalms by “lining-out”: a leader sings each line, and the congregation repeats it (more or less). In the lining-out tradition, there is no need for the members of the congregation to have individual psalm books or even literacy of any kind. One simply repeated back what the leader had sung. The result might be heard as sloppy, since little effort was made to keep strict time and the congregation members would add their own modifications to the melodies as they sang them back. Church leaders were unhappy with the result and with the musical illiteracy of the congregation. Therefore, church-sponsored singing schools began to emerge across the colonies to teach basic music reading skills; itinerant music teachers also traveled around providing private instruction. This newly literate public began to express an interest in singing something more complex than monophonic psalms, which led to scandalous polyphonic singing in some churches. By the time of the Revolutionary War, some of this polyphonic music was composed by Americans; one of those composers was William Billings.

Interface: Shape-Note Singing and Worship in North America
Singing schools incited a booming music print industry in New England. Seven solfège syllables simplified to four Shaped note-heads reinforced the syllables The advent of singing schools incited a booming music printing industry in New England. Part of this industry included didactic works. Solfège is a very old method of learning to sing from notation alone; it employs seven (originally six) syllables, which stand for the seven scale degrees in the major-minor system: do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti-(do). American teachers realized it was possible to simplify the system and account for all seven notes by using on four syllables: mi-fa-sol-la. Soon after, the shape of the note head was changed depending on the syllable. This was called shape-note notation, and this system is still in use in some parts of the country.

Billings and The New England Psalm-Singer
William Billings (1746–1800) Self-taught musician, published composer, singing school teacher, revolutionary New England Psalm-Singer (1770) collection of his own compositions Introduces basics of notation and his method of composition, not bound by European tradition Simple homophonic textures, melody often in tenor, occasional simple imitation William Billings (1746–1800) was a self-taught musician, published composer, singing school teacher, and revolutionary. In 1770 he published the New England Psalm-Singer, a collection of his own compositions. In the collection, Billings introduces the basics of notation and his method of composition, which he proudly claimed was not bound by European tradition. He preferred simple homophonic textures, often with the melody in the tenor, and occasional simple imitation.

David’s Lamentation (LG14)
First published 1778 Anthem, designed for congregational singing Homophony, short bass solo, imitation Interesting but not too complex David’s Lamentation (LG14) was first published by Billings in It is an anthem, designed for congregational singing. This piece features homophony, solo music, and imitation. The inclusion of these practices keeps the piece interesting yet well within the capabilities of a congregation to sing.

Encounter: Blending Worship Traditions in Colonial Latin America
Spaniards came to the New World in the sixteenth century and found complex, long-standing societies Catholics in New Spain worked to assimilate local peoples into their religious communities Ended up with mixed-language and mixed-imagery devotional songs called villancicos When Spaniards came to the New World in the sixteenth century, they were surprised to find complex, long-standing societies, which, of course, had their own musical and cultural traditions. Rather than ban native music, Catholics in New Spain worked to assimilate local peoples, along with their culture and customs into Catholic religious communities. This resulted in mixed-language and mixed-imagery devotional songs called villancicos.

Chapter 25: Grace and Grandeur: The Baroque Dance Suite 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 25: Grace and Grandeur: The Baroque Dance Suite
● In the Baroque era, instruments were greatly improved and featured in several large-scale genres, including the suite (a collection of dances). ● The Baroque suite is a group of dances, usually in the same key, with each piece in binary form (A-A-B-B) or ternary form (A-B-A). ● Handel’s best-known orchestral suites are Water Music and Music for the Royal Fireworks.

Grace and Grandeur: The Baroque Dance Suite
Baroque era saw technological advances in musical instruments Flowering of purely instrumental music As the Baroque era saw technical advances in instrument-making, performers and composers began raising standards of technique accordingly. The result was a veritable flowering of purely instrumental music.

Baroque Instruments Violin workshops of Stradivarius, Guarneri, Amati
Worth millions today Woodwind instruments prized for tone color and subtlety Trumpets added brightness, horns a mellow huntlike sound Timpani occasionally added Violins out of the workshops of Stradivarius, Guarneri, and Amati are worth millions of dollars today. To the standard string group, the woodwind instruments were added for color and subtlety; trumpets added brightness, the horns a mellow, huntlike sound. Timpani were also occasionally added, mostly as a bass support for the trumpets.

The Baroque Suite Suite: group of short dances performed by instruments Vast array of contrasting moods Allemande, courante, sarabande, gigue (jig) Minuet, gavotte, bourrée, passepied, hornpipe Each dance binary or ternary form For solo instruments, chamber ensembles, or orchestras A dance suite is a group of short dances performed on instruments alone. Dances were arranged in contrasting moods: Allemande, courante, sarabande, gigue (jig) Minuet, gavotte, bourrée, passepied, hornpipe Each dance is in binary or ternary form. Dance suites were performed by solo instruments, chamber ensembles, and, eventually, orchestras.

Handel and the Orchestral Suite
Water Music Suite (LG15) played for a royal party on the Thames in 1717 Outdoor performance Lively rhythms and catchy melodies Handel’s Water Music suite was played for a royal party on the River Thames in This was, of course, an outdoor performance, so Handel relies heavily upon the wind instruments as well as lively rhythms and catchy melodies.

Chapter 26: Sounding Spring: Vivaldi and the Baroque Concerto 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 26: Sounding Spring: Vivaldi and the Baroque Concerto
● Baroque musicians developed the concerto, a genre that generally featured either a solo instrument or a small group of soloists set against a larger ensemble. ● First and last movements of concertos tended to follow a refrain-based structure known as ritornello form. ● Antonio Vivaldi, a virtuoso violinist, composed The Four Seasons, a well-loved set of solo violin concertos that exemplify program music.

Sounding Spring: Vivaldi and the Baroque Concerto
Instrumental music capable of creating meaning through patterns of sound Composers often called upon written language to help explore the possibilities of what music could mean While instrumental music is fully capable of creating meaning through patterns of sound alone, composers often called on written language to help them and the audience explore the possibilities of what music could mean.

The Baroque Concerto Based on the opposition between two dissimilar bodies of sound Contrasted one or more “featured” instruments with a larger orchestral ensemble Three movements, Fast—Slow—Fast Fast movements based on alternation between orchestral refrains (ritornellos) and virtuosic outbursts by the soloist(s) The Baroque concerto is based on the opposition between two dissimilar bodies of sound. Typically this meant contrasting one or more featured instruments with a larger orchestral ensemble. Most baroque concertos are in three movements: Fast – Slow – Fast. The fast outer movements are based on alternation between orchestral refrains (ritornellos) and virtuosic outbursts by the soloist(s).

Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741) Music master at Conservatorio dell’Ospedale della Pietà Important music school for orphaned girls Prolific composer Over 500 concertos Also chamber music, operas, cantatas, other sacred works The Venetian composer Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741) was music master at the Conservatorio dell’Ospedale della Pietà. This was an important music school, also providing shelter to poor, orphaned girls. Vivaldi was an enormously prolific composer, with over 500 concertos to his credit, many of which were written for the girls at the Pietà. In addition, Vivaldi also wrote chamber music, operas, cantatas, and other sacred works.

Program Music: Vivaldi’s The Four Seasons (LG16)
Instrumental music being liberated from dependence on vocal music Four Seasons a group of four solo violin concertos, each named for a season Each concerto accompanied by a poem about the season; the music tries to capture the imagery of the poem The first movement of Spring evokes bird songs, described in the poem The concerto came into being at precisely the time that instrumental music was being liberated from its dependence on vocal music. Vivaldi’s Four Seasons is a group of four solo violin concertos, each named for a season. Each concerto is accompanied by a poem about the season; the music tries to capture the imagery of the poem. The first movement of Spring evokes bird songs, which are described in the poem.

Chapter 27: Process as Meaning: Bach and the Fugue 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 27: Process as Meaning: Bach and the Fugue
● The organ and harpsichord were the main keyboard instruments of the Baroque era. ● Keyboard players improvised and created free-form pieces called preludes or toccatas, followed by more structured works, such as fugues. ● The Art of Fugue is J. S. Bach’s last and most comprehensive example of contrapuntal writing.

Process as Meaning: Bach and the Fugue
Instrumental music often includes a component of improvisation Interaction between musical lines provides the music’s expressive resources and meaning Counterpoint-based music can be understood as individual “pieces” but should also be considered a process Instrumental music in some contexts includes a component of improvisation. The Interaction between musical lines provides the music’s expressive resources and meaning. Counterpoint-based music can be understood as individual “pieces” but should also be considered a process.

Keyboard Instruments in the Baroque Era
Keyboard instruments inherently suited to polyphonic performance Organ and harpsichord had reached a new level of refinement Organs had various sets of pipes, with contrasting tone colors; ear could pick out separate lines of counterpoint Toccatas and preludes showcased performer’s dexterity, often followed by more systematically organized forms (such as the fugue) Keyboard instruments are inherently suited to polyphonic performance. By the seventeenth century, the organ and the harpsichord had reached a new level of refinement. The organ was a useful tool, for the pipes that created the sound had contrasting tone colors built in; this aids the ear in picking out multiple lines of counterpoint. Toccatas and preludes showcased a performer’s dexterity, often followed by more systematically organized forms (such as the fugue)

The Fugue and its Devices
Fugue: contrapuntal composition in which a single theme (the subject) pervades the entire fabric Enters in one “voice,” then in another; principle of imitation Subject stated alone, then imitated in another voice (called the answer) Once all voices have stated the subject, the exposition is over The exposition is followed by a series of varied entrances of the subject interspersed with episodes—interludes lacking the subject Fugue: contrapuntal composition in which a single theme (the subject) pervades the entire fabric. The subject enters in one “voice,” then in another, illustrating the principle of imitation. The subject is stated alone, then imitated in another voice (called the answer). Once all the voices have stated the subject, the exposition is over. The exposition is followed by a series of varied entrances of the subject interspersed with episodes—interludes lacking the subject.

Bach’s Keyboard Fugues
Bach worked his entire life refining his fugal technique Process of combining predictable material with fresh ideas The Well-Tempered Clavier a collection of forty-eight prelude/fugue pairs intended as a teaching aid From his early days as an organist at Weimar to the end of his career in Leipzig, Bach worked his entire life refining his fugal technique. The difficulty of fugal practices involves the process of combining predictable material with fresh ideas, a skill at which Bach excelled. One of his teaching aids was The Well-Tempered Clavier, a collection of forty-eight prelude/fugue pairs. Book I featured prelude/fugue pairs in all twelve major and minor keys, and was followed up by a second book with a similar format

Contrapunctus I, from The Art of Fugue (LG17)
Art of Fugue collection of fourteen fugues and four canons Systematic exploration of fugal devices Unspecified instrumentation Increasing complexity with each fugue “Capstone” work Bach’s giant testament to the fugue is his unfinished Art of Fugue. This massive work, for unspecified instrumentation, is a collection of fourteen fugues and four canons. Bach systematically explores different fugal devices, with each fugue increasing in complexity.

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