US Military History – Minorities/Women

US Military History – Minorities/Women

Bell Ringer Injustice and inequality – name an incident that you associate with these words. Do you know about any involvement of minorities in WWII?

The American Revolution:

American Revolution Slaves could get freedom if they fought for British Native Americans Women Deborah Sampson Teach their children ideals Molly Pitcher

During America’s first war, The Revolutionary War, Deborah Samson of Plymouth Massachusetts, disguised herself as a young man and presented herself to the American army as a willing volunteer to fight our opponents. She enlisted in the year 1778 under the name “Robert Shirtliffe”

American Revolution & Civil War
No official role in the military Worked as cooks, seamstresses, caregivers, nurses, and launderers Some disguised themselves as men and fought in battle Some acted as spies, saboteurs, and couriers History: (2) During the America Revolution and the Civil War women would follow men into battle in unofficial roles as cooks, seamstresses, launderers, and caregivers/nurses. But they weren’t paid and they weren’t part of the military. Some also disguised themselves as men and others worked as spies, saboteurs or couriers. (The woman pictured is Molly Walker, a surgeon during the Civil War.)

Slaves & Indians in the War
The Continental Army had 2 all-black regiments composed of Northern slaves Black slaves supported whoever seemed likely to deliver freedom: Northern slaves supported the colonists who offered freedom for any slave who fought Southern slaves typically supported Britain Native Americans feared colonial expansion & overwhelmingly supported Britain

James Armistead James Armistead was born into slavery in Virginia around 1748. Armistead enlisted in the Revolutionary War under General Lafayette. Working as a spy, Armistead gained the trust of General Cornwallis and Benedict Arnold, providing information that allowed American forces to prevail at the Battle of Yorktown.

James Amistead Amistead convinced Cornwallis that he had escaped and was ready to be a British agent He provided him with information about a fake troop of soldiers, after soiling the paper so that he could pretend he found it on the road He was thus able to gain entry to the British command, and provide Lafayette with plans The Virginia state legislature later voted to grant him his freedom as thanks for his services “Intelligence Officers of the Past." Uncovering the Truth. United States Intelligence Community. 16 May 2007 <

Contributions of James Armistead to the War for Independence
Provided Lafayette with invaluable information as to British troop movements Armistead was so effective that Cornwallis did not discover the treachery until after the Battle of Yorktown Continued spying throughout the Battle of Yorktown, sending information to Lafayette important to the cause of victory Was a victory for slaves, asserting their intelligence This did not cause any wide sweeping changes, but it did open people’s eyes “Intelligence Officers of the Past." Uncovering the Truth. United States Intelligence Community. 16 May 2007 <

Legacy for Indians Generally thought it was not their war
War for liberty and independence took liberty and independence away from Indians War against colonial oppression led to colonization and oppression of Indians by the U.S. government Soldiers paid with Indian land, not free land Indians erased from history due to Paris Peace Treaty and the idea that the war was fought ONLY between colonists and British

The War of 1812

The Civil War ( )

Blacks in the Military After the Emancipation Proclamation blacks began to join the Union Army Initially they were only used for manual labor Eventually, Blacks saw live combat 54th regiment out of Massachusetts William Carney

Black Men in Blue Frederick Douglass
Blacks fighting for union would guarantee citizenship Field commanders start forming Black regiments from slaves they freed Non-combat roles Paid less than whites Officers were white 54th Massachusetts Infantry Robert Gould Shaw

Frederick Douglass and Robert Gould Shaw

The 54th Regiment attack on Fort Wagner, SC- July 18, 1863

Women and the War Female casualties
Clerical jobs open to women in the north Clara Barton Women’s Central Association for Relief Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell United States Sanitary Commission National Woman Suffrage Association Elizabeth Cady Stanton Susan B. Anthony

Frances Clayton Source: The National Archives

Sarah Rosetta Wakeman Harriet Tubman

Sarah Edmonds Sarah Emma Edmonds: Sarah Emma Edmonds was born in Nova Scotia in 1841, and later moved to the United States early in her young adult life to escape the abuse of her father. While living in Detroit Michigan in 1861, she decided to join the United States Army and fight for “her country” in the Civil War. While in the army, she disguised her sex and went by the alias Frank Thompson, and became a male nurse in the Second Volunteers of the United States Army. Edmonds was unique because not only was she able to remain in the army for several years, but was also successful as a Union spy-all while impersonating a man.

The Spanish- American War

African Americans have fought in military conflicts since colonial days. However, the Buffalo Soldiers, comprised of former slaves, freemen and Black Civil War soldiers, were the first to serve during peacetime.

These regiments would become known as
Official Beginnings July 28th, 1866, provisions were made for the Negroes to serve in the U.S. Army Six regiments, 2 of Cavalry and 4 of infantry were authorized The Ninth (9th) and Tenth (10th) U.S. Cavalry Regiments ****************************************************** These regiments would become known as The Buffalo Soldiers

Buffalo Soldiers, down through the years, have worn the name with pride.

Spanish-American War Cathay Williams
Cathay Williams was born in 1844, in Independence Missouri. She was the first African American female to enlist, serving in the United States Army under the pseudonym William Cathay. Williams was one of the Buffalo Soldiers for three years, passing herself off as a man to all but her cousin and a friend, both of whom were fellow soldiers in her regiment.

Why did they want to join the army?
the chance for social and economic betterment. (Something difficult to achieve in a society all but closed to them) they were free, but many did not have skills to go forward or a place to go. (So many felt that the army would be a new home) the adventure of being sent west to help tame an untamed wilderness this could lead them to their great dream--building a new life on their own land the prospect of learning how to read and write--they felt this would bring them closer to learning and therefore to earning the respect of the white men (knowing what the white man knew would help them survive and prosper)

: The World at War

Spanish American War & World War I
Nursing Corps formed as an auxiliary to the Army (1901) and Navy (1908). 34,000 women served as nurses in all armed forces in WWI. No military rank. No military benefits. (3) During the Spanish American War in 1901 Congress established the Nursing Corps as an auxiliary to the Army. This established women as a formal part of the military. In 1908 the Navy establishing its own nursing corps auxiliary. By the end of WWI, about 34,000 women had served as nurses. This was seen as a turning point because it recognized the importance of women to the army forces. However, they still had secondary status with no military rank and no benefits.

Minorities in the U.S. Army
African Americans Segregated and trained in separate camps. Only a few regiments were trained. Were only allowed to be in the Army and in the Navy as mess men. Usually assigned to French regiments Gave them 11 citations for bravery and valor Latinos Often assigned menial tasks. Some couldn’t speak English Women Enlisted and went oversees to work as switch board operators, nurses, and typists in the Army, Navy, and Marines.

Did You Know? • Approximately 380,000 African Americans served in the U.S. armed forces during World War I. • Nearly 200,000 African Americans who served during World War I played roles in Europe as support troops and over 40,000 served in combat. • Many members of the 369th were from Harlem, New York; the nickname “Hellfighters” is said to have been coined by German troops, or more likely, the American press.

Henry Johnson

• When they returned from the war in February 1919, over one million
people lined the streets of New York City’s Fifth Avenue. The 369th marched first in the parade, led by legendary bandleader James Reese Europe. • The 369th was one of the few units to have black officers in addition to black soldiers.

World War I, 1917-1918 Hellfighters Let’s Go!

Women in WWI Women Enlisted and went oversees to
work as switch board operators, nurses, and typists in the Army, Navy, and Marines.

World War II Harts War -

A) African Americans African American union leader A. Philip Randolph planned to march on DC unless AA were given jobs in wartime industry Roosevelt signed EO 8802 – allowing government jobs without discrimination March called off 2 million AA moved North – race riots in Detroit and New York Pittsburgh courier launched the double V campaign Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): civil rights group founded in Chicago – used non-violent techniques to end discrimination

Dorie Miller

Tuskegee Airmen

B) Mexican Americans Worked in factories and fought in the war amidst discrimination US needed farm laborers braceros: Mexican farm laborers brought to work in US Barrios: Spanish speaking neighborhoods in US – poor Mexican-Americans began wearing zoot-suits – US navy personnel in Los Angles thought it was un-American – fighting and riots began – victims usually arrested - Navy limited leave in Los Angles

C) Native Americans Many fought in the war (25,000)
23,000 moved to cities to work Never came home

Wind Talkers One of the keys to Allied success in the Pacific was the use of secret codes. The United States trained a special group of Navajo Indian “code talkers” for the task.

Because Navajo is not a written language and is understood by very few people, it made an excellent basis for a code to transmit vital information.

D) Japanese Americans 127,000 Japanese Americans living in US at war time – 2/3 citizens US afraid of spies – Pearl Harbor EO 9066 – internment for Japanese in camps – people lost everything Interned – confined Barbed wire and armed guards ? Today we look upon it as a grave injustice – 1988 all survivors given 20,000 and an official apology.

Japanese Loyalty Questions? 442nd Combat Team George Sakato
Purple Heart Battalion George Sakato Some resisted the internment and fought back. Korematsu v. United States

Japanese Americans in the Military
17,000 fought in WWII in Europe Nisei – citizens born to Japanese immigrants Some volunteered while living in internment camps 442nd Regimental Combat Team most highly decorated in WWII “Go For Broke”

E) Working Women Women made up 35% of work force – did jobs they never thought possible Rosie the Riveter - 628 AA women improved their jobs also Received less pay Women still did house care and needed family to watch children Some women went back to house after war – many wanted to keep jobs – most were fired for men

Military Women Excluded from combat positions
Some served doing traditional “women’s work” in military branches (i.e. cleaning and secretarial duties) Many women became nurses, or used their nursing expertise to help in the war effort (i.e. Red Cross, military nursing units) 1. Lewis, Jone J. "Women and World War II: Women and the Military." About.Com. 4 June 2007 <

World War II Nurses, secretaries, telephone operators
350,000 women served in the military representing 2% of the total force Women became permanent members of the Regular and Reserve forces (1948) (5) They worked primarily as nurses, but were also found as clerk-typist, stenographers, secretaries, and telephone operators. They represented 2% of the total military force.

Enlist in the WAVES John Falter
Military Women Falter, John. Enlist in the WAVES. Recruiting Posters for Women from World War II. Department of the Navy. 4 June 2007 < More Nurses are Needed! World War II: Poster. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 4 June 2007 < Enlist in the WAVES John Falter More Nurses are Needed!

World War II Women given full military status Navy WAVES (1942)
Army WAC (1943) Airforce WASPS Marine Corps Women’s Reserve Coast Guard Women’s Reserve (4) It was during WWII that women were given full status, including rank and benefits, in the Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES), the Women’s Army Corps (WAC), the Women’s Air Force Service Pilots (WASPs), and the Marine and Coast Guard Reserve.

Military Women Women in the U.S. military during World War II:
Army: 140,000 Navy: 100,000 Marines: 23,000 Coast Guard: 13,000 Air Force: 1,000 Army and Navy Nurse Corps: 74,000 1. Lewis, Jone J. "Women and World War II: Women and the Military." About.Com. 4 June 2007 <

Jacqueline Cochran: Jacqueline Cochran, born in near Mobile, Alabama in 1906, was one of the most gifted racing pilot of her generation. She was also an important member of the Women’s Auxilliary Army Corps and Women Airforce Services Piolets.

Korean War

Hiroshi H. Miyamura Congressional Medal of Honor

Korea & Vietnam Roles increased due to changes in society and the needs of the military Nurses, clerical/administrative, communications, personnel, finance, data processing, intelligence Initially 1% of the military force (6) During the Korean War and Vietnam wars, female roles expanded somewhat. They were nurses, administrative personnel, and worked in communications, personnel, finance, data processing and intelligence. At the beginning of the Korean War there were only 22,000 women on active duty presenting less than 1% of the military. This increased to about 2.5% by the end of Vietnam.

The Vietnam War

The Draft Poor Americans (and blacks) disproportionally served in Vietnam. Draft Exemptions Muhammad Ali refuses to fight Could be excluded from draft for health reasons, or college enrollment (skyrocketed  draft board monitored grades) The rich could find a way out of the draft; the poor could not. Dad and Vietnam The Draft Lottery Instituted in 1969 for fairness

American Morale Begins to Dip
Disproportionate representation of poor people and minorities. Severe racial problems. Major drug problems. Officers in combat 6 mo.; in rear 6 mo. Enlisted men in combat for 12 mo.

Noncombat positions Administration, communication, engineering, medical care, and transportation Still in danger/could get killed Women 10,000 served in noncombat positions(ex. Nurses) 20,000-45,0000 work in civilian capacities (ex. Relief agencies/ Red Cross)

Memorial to US Nurses in Vietnam

Vietnam Women’s Memorial
Designed by Glenna Goodacre Dedicated to the women who served in the Vietnam War, and for the families who had lost loved ones Reminding Americans of the comfort and care women had provided during the war Vietnam Women's Memorial. Washington D.C. Visiting DC. 5 June 2007 < "Vietnam Women's Memorial." Vietnam Veterans Memorial. 31 May National Park Service. 5 June 2007 < "During the Vietnam Era..." Vietnam Women's Memorial Foundation June 2007 <

Military Women Many of the women in this war were forgotten, men dominated this war Around 11,000 American women were stationed in Vietnam during the war. Roles in the military: Nurses in the Army, Navy, and Air Force Physicians Physical therapists Personnel in Medical Service Corps Air traffic controllers Communications specialists Intelligence officers Clerks 1. "During the Vietnam Era..." Vietnam Women's Memorial Foundation June 2007 <

Statistics The American women who served in Vietnam:
U.S. Army: 4,675 U.S. Navy: 423 U.S. Marine Corps: 36 U.S. Air Force: 771 Number of women killed: 8 Total number of U.S. military personnel who served in Vietnam: 2,709,965 1. "Number of American Women Who Served in Vietnam, U.S. Military." The American War Library June 2007 <

Sharon Anne Lane: Sharon Lane was a United States Army nurse who perished during the Vietnam War of shrapnel wounds.

A Comparison World War II had been a major advancement for women in the U.S., but once the men had returned, women were back to their domestic lives. Vietnam War had occurred right after the “baby boom” period, and the men had dominated during the war. The women were overlooked, and referred to as the “forgotten soldiers,” unlike their larger roles in World War II.

1970’s First women generals and admirals
All Volunteer Force (end of the draft) Title 9 – girls active in school sports Service academies opened to women (1976) Women integrated fully into military branches of services Women entered Airborne Training (7) The 1970’s were big for women in the military. That is when the first women officers were promoted to general and admiral (pictured is Gen Anna Mae Hays, the first female general), the All Volunteer Force was established (which hastened the acceptance of women because the military could not recruit enough men), the service academies (WestPoint, Annapolis, and the AF Academy) opened to women, and the special corps (WAC, WAVES, etc) were eliminated so that women would be in the same branches as men. Also, women entered Airborne and Air Assault training for the first time. This parallels changes in American society where women and girls were involved in sports and more career fields opened up.

1980’s Combat Exclusion Policy Operation Urgent Fury - Grenada
Operation Just Cause - Panama (8) The 1980’s saw the development of the “combat exclusion policy” intended to protect women from combat environment. The services tried to determine what job titles were most likely to engage in combat and excluded women from these roles. Some jobs were obvious, such as infantry, armor, and field artillery, but many less so. This was really tested in 1983 during Grenada and Panama in Women deployed as military police, helicopter pilots, maintenance personnel, intelligence specialist, and others. Because the truth is that you don’t just deploy your infantry, you have to send the support people as well. There were instances of women not being allowed deploy, but that proved impractical because women had key roles in the units and had trained for this type of work. As one female officer said “One does not join the military to lead a sheltered and protected life.” In the end most women did deploy with their units and performed admirably.

Terrorism The Long War

Desert Storm Transportation, helicopter pilots, missiles, supply, medics, and more 40,000 women Greater acceptance of women in expanded roles (9) Desert Storm saw more advances in the roles of women and greater acceptance of them as equals. This was the first conflict with a large numbers of women in a variety of roles. Over 40,000 women participated in the Persian Gulf War. They worked in logistics moving and managing supplies and repairing equipment, with missiles, as medics, in communications, and intelligence and a variety of jobs that were not considered “direct combat.” Of course, we know of women who were captured, wounded, and killed in Desert Storm, so combat exclusion didn’t protect them entirely.

Iraq & Afghanistan Serving on Navy ships, and as combat pilots, truck drivers, Marine search teams 180,000 women in the war zone Repeated deployments (10) Iraq/Afghanistan – The changes in women’s roles between Desert Storm and today have been remarkable. Women now serve on Navy aircraft carriers and destroyers, and as fighter and bomber pilots. They drive trucks, which we all know is dangerous in Iraq and Afghanistan. They serve on Marine search teams that go house to house looking for weapons and enemy combatants. These women are assigned to the team to search the civilian women. They serve as engineers building roads, bridges, and buildings. With the exception of infantry, tanks, and submarines, it’s hard to find anything they don’t do. And in today’s world, that puts them in harm’s way. They have earned Combat Action Badges, Bronze Stars, and Silver Stars for valor in combat, and Purple Hearts for being wounded in combat. They really are fully integrated members of the military. As of November 2009, there have been over 180,000 women who have deployed to the war zone.

Key Points Women’s role in the military is evolving and expanding
Women represent 15% of active force, 23% of reserves Women as a percentage of the veteran population is growing (2.5% in 1970 to 8% in 2010) Average female veteran is 46 compared to the average male veteran at 60. “Combat exclusion” no longer an option (11) To summarize: the role that women play today in the military is vastly different than in the past. Their numbers are increasing in the active duty military, the reserves, and in the veteran population. Because of their “newness” the average age of a female veteran is much younger than her male counterpart. And while we may say that the military excludes women from direct combat roles, they are in as much danger and face the same stresses and challenges as male soldiers, sailors, marines, and airmen. [At this point you can either talk about your personal experiences within military or transition into a presentation on women in the VFW and the She Serves campaign.] *The numbers in parenthesis correspond to the slide number of the PowerPoint presentation.

US Military History – Minorities/Women

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