1. Today you need: Classification notes from orange bin. Writing utensil
If you were not here yesterday: the biological classification packet in yellow bin.
If you have not taken your exam, you need to do so during SSR today.

2. Classification

3. Biodiversity – the variety of organisms in an ecosystem.
10 million species known to exist today.
Possibly 30 million+ undiscovered species of insects alone.
Relationship between organisms determined by:
Evolutionary relationship
Biochemistry
Behavior
Developmental stages

4. Classification 8 Levels of classification in modern system.
There used to be 5 levels in the original Linnaeus system
Each level is called a taxon and can change as more information becomes available. Add ex. phylogenetics
Can be used to classify all BUT asexually reproducing species
1. Domain (largest category, organisms are least similar)
2. Kingdom
3. Phylum
4. Class
5. Order
6. Family
7. Genus (smallest category, organisms most similar)
8. Species (down to a single organism!)

5. Acronym for remembering this is? Write one of these down.
Do Kangaroos Prefer Cake Or Frosting, Generally Speaking?
Didn’t Know Popeye’s Chicken Offered Free Gizzard Strips.
Or make your own.

7. Which is more closely related to the …

9. Domain – broadest level, includes 3 lineages:
1. Archaea: similar to Bacteria, but inhabit extreme, hostile environments (hot springs, deep-sea thermal vents, salty lake, no O2). “Ancient”
2. Bacteria: unicellular prokaryotic organisms. Lack membrane-bound organelles and nucleus. Has a cell wall.
3. Eukarya: multicellular eukaryotic organisms. Has organelles and a nucleus.
Add “True nucleus”.

10. Kingdoms 6 different kingdoms in modern system Used to be 5 because …
Archaebacteria & Eubacteria used to be 1 kingdom known as Monera.

11. Kingdom Archaea (Domain Archaea)
Prokaryotic – no nucleus or membrane bound organelles
Used to be in Kingdom Monera with bacteria
Unicellular and microscopic
Live in extreme environments (Salty lakes and boiling hot springs)
***Not on handout – All prokaryotes do have the following: DNA, Ribosomes, Proteins, Cell Membrane – why?

12. Kingdom Bacteria (Domain Bacteria)
Prokaryotic – no nucleus or membrane bound organelles
Used to be in Kingdom Monera with archaea
Unicellular and microscopic
Can be a PRODUCER
Normal bacteria
GRAM STAIN
Used to differentiate between
different types of bacteria
(Gram + or Gram -)
FACT
Penicillin stops kills bacteria by stopping
their production of cell walls

13. Ex. Mitochondria in a eukaryotic cell.
ENDOSYMBIOSIS -symbiosis in which one of the symbiotic organisms lives inside the other.
Ex. Mitochondria in a eukaryotic cell.

14. Kingdom Protista (Domain Eukarya)
Eukaryotic – nucleus and membrane bound organelles
Diverse collection of mostly single celled organisms
Can be “animal like” or “plant like”
Algae is an example of plant like (is autotrophic – photosynthesis) – these are PRODUCERS
Animal like protists are called protozoans
Recent evidence suggests this kingdom should be split into multiple kingdoms

15. Kingdom Fungi (Domain Eukarya)
Eukaryotic - nucleus and membrane bound organelles
Multicellular
Includes mushrooms, molds, yeasts
Mode of nutrition
Heterotrophic - Mostly decomposers (break down remains of dead organism and organic wastes, such as leaf litter and animal feces, and absorb the nutrients into their cells)

16. **Additional Info about the Kingdom Fungi not on note handout
Produce spores that can survive for very long periods of time in unfavorable conditions and will wait to sprout until conditions are favorable for the adult fungi to survive
Have a branching network called hyphae that work with their roots to digest the surface they are growing off of
Have a cell wall NOT composed of cellulose
Some of them can produce toxic chemicals

17. Kindgom Plantae (Domain Eukarya)
Eukaryotic - nucleus and membrane bound organelles
Multicellular
Plants
Nonmotile
Special Organelles (that animals don’t have) – 1) Cell walls made of cellulose, 2)Chloroplast, 3)Central vacuoles
Mode of Nutrition
Autotrophic - Produce own food through photosynthesis

18. Kingdom Animalia (Domain Eukarya)
Eukaryotic - nucleus and membrane bound organelles
animals
Multicellular
Motile
Lack rigid cell walls, chloroplasts, and central vacuoles
Mode of nutrition
Heterotrophic – eat different organisms for food
Stop here

19. VIRUSES
Viruses are considered NON-LIVING because they are not made of cells.
So, what kingdom would they be classified in?
More facts about viruses:
Require a host to reproduce
Made only of protein and DNA
No known cures for human viruses. If you get one, you will have it for life.

20. Taxonomy – science of classifying organisms.
(Phylogenetics is classifying organisms based off of their evolutionary history)
Aristotle (about 2,400 years ago)
1st scientist to classify organisms
Only two groups (plant & animal) based on habitat and stem structure.
Common names & long descriptions
Carolus Linnaeus (year 1735)
“father of modern taxonomy”
Based on structural similarities.
Originally has 5 levels of classification.
Used 2 name, naming system (binomial nomenclature)

21. Binomial nomenclature – 2 name naming system.
“Genus & species”
First word capitalized, second word not.
Always italicized or underlined.
Always in Latin because…
Dead language (not subject to change in meaning “slang”)
It is universal
Example: Homo sapien or Homo sapien

22. Dichotomous key "divided into two choices“
looks at the similarities and differences
leads the user to the organism’s name
MONEY TAXONOMIC KEY
1 A. Metal go to 2
1 B. Paper go to 5
2 A. Brown (copper) penny
2 B. Silver go to 3
3 A. Smooth edge nickel.
3 B. Ridges around the edge go to 4
4 A. Torch on back dime
4 B. Eagle on back quarter
5 A. Number 1 in the corners $1 bill
5 B. Number 2 in the corners $2 bill

23. Problems with Taxonomy
Classifying species into higher taxa is useful, but ultimately arbitrary
Higher classification levels are defined by various morphological characteristics instead of measurable differences that could be used to apply to an entire taxon level
Therefore, many biologists now propose that classification be based solely off the evolutionary history of an organism (Phylogenetics)
Add this: Phylogenetics: organisms related based on their DNA sequences.

24. Classifying organisms based on Evolution
Phylogeny – the evolutionary relationship between organisms. (genetics)
Cladogram / Phylogenetic Tree- looks like family tree, used to show evolutionary history of organisms
Evidence of shared ancestry:
Fossil records
Homologous features
Embryological evidence
Add: genetics

25. Analogous structures - traits that have similar use, but different structure. Due to structure being used in similar way
Homologous structures – traits that have similar structure, but have different uses. Due to common ancestry.

26. Cladistics (Cladograms)
Organisms are grouped into clades
A clade is a group of species that includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants
Based on a new trait developing and being passed down to descendants
Groups of organisms that share these new traits are more closely related to each other than to groups who only have ancestral traits

27. Making Cladograms / Phylogenetic Trees
Shared derived characters – new traits that are shared by a group
These shared derived characteristics distinguish between clades and are “branches” in the tree of life (and branches in cladograms)
Shared ancestral characters – original traits present in ancestral groups

28. Making Cladograms / Phylogenetic Trees – Character Tables
Character Table - Table used to generate phylogenetic trees by comparing characteristics of species.
Each new character represents the divergence of two groups from a common ancestor (one without the new characteristic and one with it) and thus shows the order in which new traits evolved.
Ingroup – group of taxa that is actually being analyzed
Outgroup – species or group of species that is known to have diverged before the lineage that contains the groups we are studying

29. Rules for making character table
Organisms go on top of chart
List organisms from oldest to youngest going from left to right
Organisms that have the MOST TRAITS of those being studied will be the YOUNGEST. This is because they evolved most recently and thus would had diverged from an ancestor that had already acquired these traits; therefore, when they diverged they too would have these traits plus some additional ones.
In the same sense, the organisms that have the LEAST TRAITS of those being studied will be the OLDEST because they diverged from an ancestor before these traits appeared

30. Rules for making a character table continued
Traits go on the left side
List traits from newest to oldest going from top to bottom
The traits that are shown by the LEAST organisms will be the YOUNGEST because they appeared more recently; therefore, there would not have been as much time for speciation to occur creating multiple species with the trait.
The traits that are shown by the MOST organisms will be the OLDEST because they appeared early in the evolutionary lineage; therefore, all organisms that diverged after that trait appeared would acquire that trait from their ancestor.

31. hagfish
perch
salamander
lizard
pigeon
mouse
chimp
Fur; mammary glands 1
Feathers
Claws or nails
Lungs
Jaws

32. Tips for reading a cladogram Extant (living species) will be up top
hagfish
perch
salamander
lizard
pigeon
mouse
chimp
Fur; mammary glands 1
Feathers
Claws or nails
Lungs
Jaws
Tips for reading a cladogram
Extant (living species) will be up top
Extinct species will be on bottom
They can be turned either way and be read the same.
The youngest species will be the one with the shortest divergence line (and the oldest will be the one with the longest)
Each node represents divergent evolution. Typically, cladograms are based off of the emergence of a new morphological trait that all species from that point forward will show (because they come from this ancestor that had the trait) but none of the organisms before will (because they evolved before the trait appeared)
A species will be most related to (because they share the most recent common ancestor with) the species that evolves after them.
The most recent common ancestor of 2 extant species can be found by tracing the line back to where they diverged.