1. Understanding
Public Policy
Thomas Dye, 10th edition

2. CONTENTS
Chap. 1: Policy Analysis
Chap. 2: Models of Politics
Chap. 3: Policymaking Process
Chap. 4: Criminal Justice
Chap. 5: Health and Welfare
Chap. 6: Education
Chap. 7: Economic Policy
Chap. 8: Tax Policy Chap. 9: International Trade and Immigration
Chap. 10: Environmental Policy
Chap. 11: Civil Rights: Elite and Mass Interaction Chap. 12: American Federalism
Chap. 13: Defense Policy
Chap. 14: Policy Evaluation

3. Chap 1: Policy Analysis
Policy-public policy is whatever government chooses to do or not to do/ a projected program of goals, values and practices.
-today people expect government to do many things for them
-understanding the causes and consequences of policy decisions improves our knowledge of society
-policy studies helps us learn about the linkage between social and economic conditions in society

4. -policy studies incorporate the ideas and methods of economics, sociology, anthropology, psycology, history, law and public administration
-public policy can be studied for political purposes to ensure that the nation adopts the "right" policies to achieve the "right" goals
-policy analysis is finding out what governments do, why they do it and what difference, if anything it makes
-learning about the consequences of public policy is often referred to as policy evaluation

5. Policy analysis involves
1. A concern with explanation rather than presumption
2. A rigorous search of the causes and consequences of public policy
3. An effort to develop test general propositions about the causes and consequences of public policy and to accumulate reliable findings of general relevance.

6. -questionable that policy analysis can ever "solve" nation's problems
-policy analysis cannot offer solutions to problems when there is no general agreement on what the problems are
-it cannot solve value conflicts
-policy analysis is one activity for which there can be no fixed programs

7. Chap 2: Models of Politics
1. Models of Politics - used to simplify, identify certain aspects, understand and explain policies
A. Institutional Model
Describe specific institutions and certain aspects of those institutions
- structures, organization, duties, and functions.
Also analyze the effect these aspects have on policy outputs

8. B. Process Model
Process model follows these steps:
- identify problem, set agenda, formulate policy, implementation, and evaluation
- Shows how decisions are made, and how they should be made
- Helps to understand activities involved in policy-making

9. C. Group Theory
Interaction among groups is the central aspect of politics
- People come together through common interests
- Public policy is the equilibrium reached in a group struggle, which is political activity
- Parties are viewed as coalitions of groups

10. D. Elite Theory
- People are apathetic and ill-informed, therefore elite shapes mass opinion
- Implies that public policy does not truly reflect the wants to the people as much as the elites
- Elitism views masses as passive and easily manipulated

11. E. Rational Model
- “Achieves maximum social gain"
- Policy should never have costs that exceed gains
- Must know societies values, all alternatives, and the consequences of the alternatives

12. F. Incrementalism
- Views public policy as a continuation of past government activities with only small modifications
- Conservative because it considers existing policy as a base, and new programs are ignored
- Believe that policies that are in effect has been proven, why alter what has proven effective

13. G. Game Theory
- Study of rational decisions where one choice depends on the outcome of another choice
- An abstract and deductive model of policy making
- More an analytic tool than a practical guide

14. H. Public Choice
- The economic study of non-market decision making
- Recognizes government must perform certain functions that market is unable to handle
- Seen in elections, candidates are more concerned with winning than advancing principles

15. Systems Theory
- Political system is a group of interrelated structures that allocate values for a society
- Sees public policy as an output of the political system
- By arranging settlements, demands are transformed into output (policies)

16. 2. How to Tell if the Models are Helping
Do they:
- Order and simplify reality
- Identify what is significant
- Congruent with reality
- Provide meaningful communication
- Direct inquiry and research
- Suggest explanations

17. Chap 3 : Policymaking Process
I. How Policies Are Made:
A. Identify the problem
B. Agenda Setting: focus the media on the situation
C. Formulate the policy proposals
D. Legitimize policies through governmental and political groups
E. Implement policy through bureaucracies
F. Evaluate policies by governmental agencies

18. II. Identification: Public Opinion
A. Opinion-policy linkage: Never know if public opinion shapes policy or if policy shapes opinion.
1. PO Key established evidence that elections, parties, and interest groups do institutionalize channels of communication from citizens to decision makers.

19. B. Policy effects: Public policy shapes public opinion more often than the reverse.
1. Public opinion is unstable
2. Few people have opinions on a great bulk of policy questions
3. Leaders do not have precise view of opinion because they hear from elites

20. C. Media Effects:
1. News believe they are public opinion but are often wrong because they confuse their opinion with that of the public.
2. Shape public opinion by saying it is the mass opinion.
3. Decision makers respond to news because they think it is the opinion of the people.

21. D. Opinion Polls
Pollsters produce opinions because no one admits when they don’t have an opinion on a subject.
E. Instability of Opinion
1. Public opinion tends to be unstable.
2. Never real changes, just appear as such
F. Wording of Questions
1. Opinions vary according to the wording of the question
2. Can word things to elicit approval or disapproval

22. G. Communicating with Policymakers
1. Decision makers can misinterpret opinion because of elite bias in information.
2. Congress world of opinion is self reinforcing
3. Those who write or call senators are usually more informed

23. III. Identifying Policy Issues: Elite Opinion
A. Elite preferences are more likely to be in accord with policy than mass opinion.
B. Can be argued that decision makers are acting rationally to their argument?

24. IV. Agenda Setting and Non-decisions
A. Creating an issue, dramatizing it, calling attention to it, and pressuring government to do something about it are important political tactics, they are tactics of agenda setting.
B. “Non-decision making: It occurs when influential individuals or groups or the political system itself operates in society.

25. It happens when officials hide an issue because they fear it will not be in their best interest.
When political candidates and office holders feel elites will not favor it.
The political system itself is structured in such a way as to facilitate resolution of some issues and to obstruct others.

26. C. “Mobilization of bias": A set of values which operate systematically and consistently to the benefit of others.

27. V. Agenda setting and mobilizing opinion: The mass media
Television is where a reported 2/3 of American people get their information
B. Media power:
Media is a player and referee in politics
It sets the agenda of public discussion
It concentrated with a small number of people
Not much diversity in news reporting

28. C. News-making: It involves important decisions on what is news and what is worthy of reporting
Media attention can create personalities and issues.
It provides cues to audience on the importance of an issue, personality, or event
"Media event" arranged primarily to attract coverage and thus attention

29. D. Media Effects:
Identifying issues and setting the agenda for policymakers
Influencing attitudes and values toward policy issues.
Changing behavior of voters and decision makers
Power of TV lies in setting the agenda for decision making

30. VI. Formulating Policy
Policy formulation is the development of policy alternatives dealing with problems on the public agenda.
B. The White House: President and the executive branch are expected to be policy initiators and Congress the arbitrators
C. Interest groups: Formulate their own policy or do so in association with Congress members
D. Legislative Staffs: Reflect the general view of their bosses, the research issues, schedule legislative hearings, line up expert to testify and write and rewrite bills

31. E. Think Tanks: Policy planning organizations are central in coordinating points in policymaking;
they bring together corporate and financial institutions, mass media, government officials, and intellectuals to reach a consensus on what action should take place.
Brookings Institute
American Enterprise Institute
The Heritage Foundation
Council on Foreign Relations

32. VII. Policy Legitimation
The proximate policymakers
A. The president, congress, congressional committees, White House Staff, and interest groups are main focus
B. The open, public, stage of policymaking
C. Conclude it is a process of bargaining, competition, persuasion and compromise
D. Decisions of the policymakers center around means rather than ends of policy

33. VIII. Party Influence on Public Opinion
A. It makes relatively little difference in the major direction of public policy whether Democratic or Republic dominate the political scene
B. They are more committed to winning office than advancing policy positions

34. IX. Policy Implementation: The Bureaucracy
A. The implementation is the continuation of politics by other means
B. Implementation and Policy making:
- All the activities designed to carry out the policies　enacted by legislative branch.
- Create new organizations, assign responsibilities.
- These organizations translate laws, spend money, and perform tasks, etc.
- Much of the actual policymaking occurs within these organizations.

35. C. Regulation and Policymaking: develop formal rules and regulations
Publish rules in the Federal Register( see p331 for list of requirements)
D. Adjudication and Policymaking: Bureaucrats decide whether a person, firm, corp., comply with the laws

36. E. Bureaucratic Discretion and Policymaking: Most bureaucracy is performing routine tasks but they decide how to apply these tasks.
F. Policy Bias of Bureaucrats: Personal beliefs inspire bureaucrats to expand powers, functions, and budgets of their agencies

37. X. Policy Evaluation: Impressionistic vs Systematic
A. Systematic (Sophisticated) model: A feedback link that identifies problems, and set the process in motion again - systematic rarely occurs
B. Impressionistic: model: It comes from interest groups complaints, legislative hearings, media stories, and citizens complaints - stimulate reform

38. Chap 4: Criminal Justice
- Crime fighting strategy is deterrence: To make cost of committing crime greater than benefits committing the crime.
-Deterrence Strategy focuses on:
certainty- crime= costly punishment
swiftness- justice must be swift
severity- it has to be harsh

39. - Author argues that crime is down and that it can be attributed to, crackdowns, community policing and longer prison sentences.
- He makes point that juvenile crime is on the rise and attributes it to their lax punishment. He feels as though in the juvenile sector that there is an absence of deterrence and this adds to criminal behavior.
- The book argues that American system of justice is not a deterrent because it lacks swiftness, certainty and severity.

40. -He blames crime rate on:
Social Heterogeneity
Socialization and Control
Irrational Crime
Innate Aggression
Deterrence vs. Liberty

41. - Thomas Dye makes the point that crime ends up paying off in the criminals eyes.
- Public now expects federal involvement in law enforcement we see this through:
Law Enforcement Act of 1994
Federal Gun Control Act of 1968
Brady Law

42. Book says that development of policies in Criminal Justice is complicated by conflicting values. On one hand we are committed to due process, yet we are also determined to fight crime (One is a fast process, the other slow).
- He ends by looking at the Death Penalty. He believes it has no deterring effect and that it falls short because of racial bias and infrequency of use. Although he still makes the argument that as crime gets worse more people want to use it.

43. Chapter 5: Health and Welfare
- Poor are not principal beneficiaries of social welfare. Only 1/6 goes to low incomes.
- Entitlements: government benefits for which Congress has a set criteria-anyone meeting them may receive benefits
- Largest amounts of entitlement spending goes to Social Security, Medicare, and Vet. & Fed. retirement

44. - Rational approach to social welfare is difficult due to nature and extent of poverty
- SSA of 1935 helps establish a basic framework
- Depression produces realization that poverty is not always individuals fault, from this, comes various types of insurances:
Social Security- most expensive program in
federal budget
Medicare- health services for the elderly
Medicaid- health services for the poor (largest welfare to the poor)
Food Stamps
Temporary assistance for Needy families

45. - Clash in Values over charity:
Individual Responsibility vs. Social Compassion
- Can social welfare policies create poverty by eliminating incentives to work
- Health care reform focuses on 2 major problems:
Controlling costs
Expending costs
- Important because everyone has a stake in the national health care system

46. Chapter 6: Education
I. Goals of Education
A) Resolve racial conflicts and build an integrated society
B) Inspire patriotism and good citizenship
C) Provide Values
D) Various forms of recreation and entertainment
E) Reduce conflict
F) Basically everything except educating

47. II. Battling Over the Basics
A. Citizen groups that have an interest in education
Parents
Taxpayers
Employers
B. Public Strongly Support:
The 3 "rs" : Reading, Writing, Arithmetic
Enforcing minimum standards with testing
Testing teachers for mastery of basic skills

48. C. SAT scores
SAT scores where declining due to more students taking the test
College Board recentered scores in 1996 to boost scores
Now more than 500 students a year make a perfect 1600

49. D. Global Comparison
Performance of 500,000 U.S. 13 year olds tested compared with 42 nations was 28 in math and 17 in science.
The top nations had a cultural value for education and is valued in the family

50. E. Nation at Risk
1983 report by National Commission on Excellence in Education (A Nation at Risk) recommended a back to the basic reform
a. Minimum high school curriculum of 4 years of English, 3 yrs of math, 3 yrs of social science, and ? year of computer science
b. 4-6 yrs of foreign language beginning in elementary school

51. c. Standardized testing for achievement
d. More homework, a 7 hr school day, and a day school year
e. Reliable grades and standardized tests for promotion and graduation
f. “Performance based" salaries for teachers

52. F. Testing
Minimum Competence Testing (MCT)
a. Test used for the need of remedial education or requirement for promotion or graduation
b. About the states require these test and are usually on 8th or 9th grade
c. Educators fear this will start teaching to the test education
d. Some charges of the test are racially biased

53. G. Teacher Testing
NEA opposes all teacher testing, but the AFT willing to accept competency testing only for new teachers

54. III. Educational Groups
A. Citizens vs. Professionals
Citizens are often pitted against professional educators about education policy
Citizen groups believe education should be a local matter through elected school boards
Elected school boards do not have the knowledge to deal with today’s issues
Superintendents are full time administrators who receives advice from professionals and sets the agenda for board meetings
Professional educators feel politics should be left out of schools but citizens want to have control

55. B. Professional educators
School teachers: largest group - about 2 million
School administrators - most powerful
Faculties of teacher colleges and dept of educations at universities
C. Teacher Unions
NEA: National Education Association - largest
AFT: American Federation of Teachers - small, affiliated with AFL-CIO

56. D. Voters and Taxpayers
Voters that turn out for elections or school referendum votes
The larger the voter turnout the less likely a school bill will be passed
E. School Boards
Selected largely from concerned parents and civic leaders

57. F. Racial and Religious groups
Groups like NAACP, National Catholic Education Conference, American Jewish Congress, etc
Have fought battles over segregation, racial issues, prayer and Bible reading
Community- based religious groups fight for return of traditional moral values

58. IV. Federal Government Role in Education
A. Traditionally education has been the responsibility of local community, later it became the responsibility of the state, federal government is just a spectator
B. State and local taxpayers have always borne 90% of public education costs
C. Early Federal Aid
Started off as land grants and later went to free lunches then to financial aid

59. D. ESEA
Elementary and Secondary Education Act 1965
Single largest federal aid to education programs
Poverty-impacted schools were principal benefactors

60. E. Educational Block Grants
Reagan administration consolidated all education funds into the Education Consolidation and Improvement Act in 1981 into single block grants for states and communities
Purpose was to give state and local districts greater discretion over the use of federal educational aid

61. F. Head Start
Most popular federal educational aid program came from LBJs war on poverty
Provide special preschool preparation to disadvantaged children before entering k or 1st grade
No conclusive evidence it is effective but politically popular
G. Federal Aid and Educational Quality
Educational achievement is dependent on how money is spent, not how much

62. V. Educational Reform and Parental Choice
A. Goals 2000
Clintons policy designed to enhance national educational goals developed by Bush and state governors
- Every Child must start school ready to learn
- High school graduation rate will be increased to at least 90%
- US students become 1st in world in math and science
- Every adult American will become literate
- Every school in the US will be free of drugs and violence and will offer a disciplined environment cohesive to learning

63. Not clear how they were to be achieved
Act specifically denies government control of curriculum, instruction, and allocation of state and local education

64. B. Clinton Initiatives
Supported National testing and proposed additional federal funds for school construction, tax credits and deductions for college tuition
Issue of who will set National standards and how to measure achievement

65. C. What works?
Research shows children do better when schools are seen as an extension of their families
D. Parental Choice
Parental choice is supposed to encourage competition which in turn encourages academic advancement
Allow parents to make educators give students what they want or they risk a large loss in enrollment

66. E. Charter schools
Community educational groups sign a charter with their school district or state authority to establish their own school
Have to show specific student achievement
Results unknown because of few established schools

67. F. Magnet Schools
Specialized schools in academic areas, or adopted by businesses, etc
Have reputation for quality and specialized instruction, recommended for inner city areas to attract white pupils

68. G. Privatized Public Schools
A private profit-making corporation makes a contract with the school districts
Lower cost to school districts
Opposed by public school administrators, public school teachers, and unions

69. H. Educational Values
Vouchers that would be given to parents to spend at any school, public or private
All public and private schools would compete equally for students and state education funds would flow to those schools that enrolled more students

70. Strong Opposition especially by professional school administrators and state and educational agencies
Say it interrupts educational planning and threatens vitality of schools
Some fear public education will be undermined and divert money from public schools to private schools

71. VI. Battle over school financing
A. Inequality among districts
Money in schools depends on the amount of economic resources
Most money comes from land taxes so schools with little land has little money
B. Constitutional issue
Supreme court says it is not a violation of 14th amendment
State courts are making legislators do something about it

72. VII. Public Policy and Higher Education
A. Public Universities
3/4 of college students go to public colleges or universities
B. Federal Aid
State government carries the major burden of higher education
Federal government directly assists many college students through grants and loans

73. C. Student Assistance
Pell Grants
Stafford Loans
Perkins Loan
Work Study
Most financial aid is given to middle class students
D. Research money is given to large Universities for scientific research

74. VIII. Groups in higher education
A. Trustees: Set broad policy directions and keep higher education from becoming politically saturated by governors and legislators
B. Presidents: Chief spokesperson to maintain support and delegate responsibilities
C. Faculty
D. Unions: AAUP-American Association of University Professors and AFT
E. Students - least influential of all groups

75. IX Reading, Writing and Religion
A. Separation of church and state comes from first amendment
B. Does not prohibit adoption of programs that help all children
C. Prayer is unconstitutional in almost all ways

76. Chapter 7: Economic Policy
-Economic policy is exercised through fiscal policies: decisions about taxation, spending and deficit levels monetary policies: money supply and interest rates
-Decided by federal spending levels
-Fiscal and monetary policies have small changes at existing levels
-Goals of economic policy growth in economic output and standards of living, full and productive employment of the nations work force and stable prices with low inflation

77. -This type of policy making is an example of incrementalism because it uses last year’s spending to decide present years budgeting
-Theories used in this type of policy making: macroeconomics: tries to explain economic cycles and to prescribe governmental policies to counter inflation and recession classical: view market economy as self adjusting mechanism

78. Keynesian:
Economic stability product of fluctuations in demands, written into employment act of 1946-promotes "maximum employment production and purchasing power"

79. - Reagan used Supply side economics - long term growth is more important than short term demand- free market is better equipped than government to bring lower prices and supply and demand
- Clinton used Enterprise Economics- government is responsible to stimulate growth- and invest in
human capital
technology
infrastructure

80. - Monetarist Economics- stability can be achieved only by holding rate of money and economic growth at the same pace
-Government spending has grown because of "Uncontrollable benefits“, for example:
entitlement programs
index of benefits
cost of in-kind benefits( non-cash)
interest on debt
back door spending

81. - Social Security is the largest item in the budget while Medicare and Medicaid are the fastest growing
-Burden of Debt government spends more than it receives in revenues and this drives up the debt things that cause this:
burdening future
slowing economic growth
limiting policy initiatives
default & Hyperinflation

82. dealing with deficits
Tax increase & Deficits
Deficits and entitlements
Politics of deficits

83. - Formal Budgetary Process & Spending Agencies
OMB in the executive office- has key responsibility for budget preparation (president has no formal powers over taxing and spending
House and Senate budget committees- they established the CBO to review presidential budget after submission to congress
Appropriations Act- provides money for spending, nothing can be spent without it

84. Appropriations Committees- used for specific appropriations in both houses (more in the house than the senate)
Revenue Act-House Committee on ways and means and the senate finance committee work mostly with taxation
Presidential Veto
Continuing Resolutions and "Shutdowns"- any government agency that does not pass an appropriations act may not take money from the treasury and is obligated to shut down continuing resolutions allows a way around this

85. Chapter 8: Tax Policy
Introduction
 -There is no better illustration of the influence of interest groups in policymaking than natal tax policy
 -Tax laws treat different types of income differently
 -Unfairness, complexity, & inefficiency of tax laws can be attributed to interest groups
 -Tax Reform Act 1986, IGs suffer defeat

86. Federal Tax System
-Total revenues from taxes and fees consistently fail to match total spending by the government
Individual Income Taxes
largest single source of revenue

87. Corporate Income Taxes
12% fed government income
Social Security Taxes
- 36% fed government income
- Today taxpayers pay more in Social Security taxes than income taxes

88. Estate and Gift Taxes
Excise and Custom Duties
Luxury items account for 1-2% income
Taxation, Fairness, and Growth
- Progressive tax: high income pay higher percentage of incomes in taxes
- Proportionality/flat tax: all income groups pay same rate
- Universality: all types of income subject to same rates

89. Economic Growth
- High taxes discourage growth
- Argues that if taxes were reduced, might increase government revenue become/ encourage growth
-Economic Recovery Tax Cut Act of 1981

90. Reagan tax cuts take effect and nation began economic recovery and slowed rate of growth of natal revenue
Tax Reform and Special Interests
- Tax Reform Act of reduction in tax rates in place of tax breaks
-Many opponents--industry, real estate, multinational corps, oil & gas, labor unions.

91. Compromising with Special Interest
-Key to overcoming opposition of special interests was to offer a tax rate low enough that most people would be willing to give up deductions and preferences
-Bipartisan effort against special interests

92. Clinton, Deficits, and Taxes
- Clinton won on promise to revive economy
- Clinton proposed raising taxes on affluent, elderly, corps, & energy
- Clinton and Reps agree to middle class tax cut in 1997

93. Tax Reform and the Flat Tax
- Flat tax--eliminate exemptions, exclusions, deductions, & special treatment with 19% tax on all forms of income
-National sales tax-- replace federal income tax and get rid of IRS; penalize consumption not production

94. -IRS--Simplifying tax laws would not only reduce cost of paying taxes but reassure taxpayer that system is fair..It would reduce the power of the IRS... taxpayers bill of rights might strengthen safeguards against arbitrary actions of IRS

95. Chapter 9: "International Trade and Immigration"
Public Policy Analysis
- 1/4 of the world’s total output is sold in a country other that where it was made
- US exports 11%--aircraft, computers-- and imports 12%--automobiles
- Comparative Advantage: what each nation produces best & shift toward making that

96. - US corps want lower trade barriers around the world--lower US tariffs
- GATT--General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade--regulate international trade
- WTO--World Trade Organization--adjudicate trade disputes among nations
- IMF--International Monetary Fund--facilitate trade by lending
- World Bank--long term loans

97. - NAFTA--eventual removal of all tariffs between US, Canada, and Mexico
- Dumping--sale of foreign goods in US markets at prices lower than charged in home--Japanese automobiles
- Foreign trade lower US wages
- US corps want immigration for cheap labor
- Immigration Act of max # immigrants accepted each year
- Immigration and Reform Act of 1986/ Simpson-Mazzoli Act---regulate employers hiring immigrants

98. - Aliens have no Constitutional right to come to US, but once here that have right to due process and equal protection
- US Supreme Court mandate that state and local government cant exclude immigrants from benefits
- Proposition 187

99. Chapter 10: Environmental Policy
Public Choice and the Environment
Environmental Externalities
Externalities occur when one individual, firm, government undertakes an activity that imposes unwanted costs on others
-The shifting of costs onto others

100. Costs of Regulation
Environmental policies are costly, but all government combined pays 1/4
other 3/4 of 100 billion/year is paid by business and consumers
Benefits in Relation to Costs
Costs of policies should not outweigh benefits to society

101. Risk Assessment
Environmental policy is a respondent to popularly perceived risks
-Some level of risk will always be present in environmental policy
Bureaucratic Incentives
They will face intense criticism if they do not
impose health regulations

102. Command and Control
Traditional approach of environment. Policy where controls are designated by administrative or legislative rules
Market Incentives
-More effective to establish private economic incentives to curb pollution than uniform regulations

103. II. Environmental Externalities
Solid Waste Disposal
landfills, incineration, recycling
Hazardous Waste
Water Pollution
Sludge, organic wastes, and chemical effluents
Air Pollution
-Motor vehicles, electrical power plants, and heating are all main sources

104. III. Interest Group Effects
Interest Group Economics
Recruit members and money to dramatize environmental threats
Shaping Public Opinion
Difficult to give really effective media coverage due to difficulty of subject, however, activity and media coverage caused shift in public opinion

105. Interest Group Politics
- show selves as clean, opposition as dirty
- must prove cost to fix is lower than results if not fixed
Radical Environmentalism
Opposition to economic development, scientific advancement, and even humanity

106. IV. Political Involvement
EPA; NEPA; Clean Air acts of 1970,1990; Water pollution control act of 1972, Endangered Species Act of 1973, etc.
EPA is the most powerful and far-reaching bureaucracy in government today

107. V. Alternative Solutions
Property rights and takings
Regulatory problems
Pollution taxes and Emission Allowances
Waste charges

108. Chapter 11 : "Civil Rights: Elite and Mass Interaction"
"Civil Rights policy is a response of a national elite to conditions affecting a minority of Americans rather than a response of national to majority sentiments."

109. Mass Opinion Differences
Most whites believe that there is little discrimination toward blacks
Blacks believe that they are not treated equally in employment, housing, etc.
White majority opinion only changed after civil rights policy has been implemented
Poor, uneducated whites posses the least favorable attitudes toward blacks

110. Well educated, successful whites are more concerned with discrimination and more eager to socialize with blacks
A majority of whites believe we have enough regulations against discrimination
Civil Rights policy reflects the views of Congress, the president and the Supreme Court
exp.: 14th Amendment
exp.: Civil Rights Act of 1875, passed by
Congress but declared
unconstitutional in 1883

111. Mass Resistance to Desegregation
The branches of government get involved to enforce civil rights policy
exp.: Civil Rights Act of Congress threatens segregated school, with loss of federal financial assistance
exp.: President Eisenhower uses military force to integrate Little Rock's Central High School

112. Busing
Suppose to end racial isolation in public schools
Mass reaction - white children sent to private school, by parents
End result - schools end up more segregated than before

113. Civil Rights Movement
Supported equality of opportunity
Ability to be able to develop one's talents and abilities

114. Affirmative Action
Supports equality of results
Sharing of incomes, jobs and material rewards, regardless of someone's economic position
Not supported by the white mass
Supreme Court Cases
States vs Paradise (1987)
-50% black quota system for promotions in the Alabama Dept. of Public

115. Safety upheld
Purpose to correct past discrimination
Richmond v.s. Crosen (1989)
-Questioned affirmative action
-Minority set aside program in Virginia violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment

116. Feminist
1880's feminism centered on the protection of women in families
Early 20th century feminism concentrated on women's suffrage
1970's feminism focused on the ERA to the Constitution
Failed - was not ratified by 38 states

117.  Civil Rights Laws
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of prevents racial and sexual discrimination in hiring and promotions
Federal Equal Credit Opportunity Act Amendment of prohibits sex discrimination in credit transactions
Title IX of the Education Act Amendment of bars discrimination in admissions, housing, rules, financial aid, pay and staff recruitment

118. Conclusion:
Rational civil rights policy is initiated by some elite
Mass resistance can only serve to limit the lengths to which the elite can go
Problem: shift the definition of "elite"

119. Chapter 12: American Federalism

120. Chap13: Defense Policy
-Each nation must have its own defense policy: assess threats develop strategies appropriate forces/budget

121. CONFRONTING NUCLEAR THREATS
-Deterrence: maintains nuclear peace, emphasizes 2nd strike capability, psychological defense,
fear of retaliation
-Strategic Weapons: TRIAD defense (ICBMs (Minuteman), sub-based missiles (Trident
missiles), manned bombers (B-52 bombers)
-“Second strike capability"

122. ARMS CONTROL GAMES
SALT I- (strategic arms limitation talks), 1972 between US and USSR, 1st effort to limit
nuclear weapons and ABS (anti-ballistic missile systems)
SALT II- (1979), "over-all limit" on nuclear launch vehicles(bombers and missiles, but subs
untouched)

123. START- (strategic arms reduction talks), reductions in nuclear weapons, equality, verification with long- and short-term notice
START I- (1991), agreement on long-range missiles
START II- eliminates 1st-strike nuclear attack by beginning to reduce amount and only have
reactionary nuclear defenses

124. POST COLD WAR NUCLEAR DETERENCES/DEFENSES
-minimal deterrence- dismantling of all old weapons
-non deterrable threats- terrorists, rougue generals/unauthorized launches, accidental launches
-spread of mass terror weapons- Iran, Iraq, Libya
-Ballistic Missile Defense(aka Star Wars)- weapons in space to be used as defense (i.e.,
lasers/missiles to shoot down incoming missiles/bombers)

125. NATO AND EUROPEAN SECURITY
-NATO- (north Atlantic treaty organization), U.S. and allies, opposed by Warsaw Pact (USSR
and other communist allies)
-collapse of eastern communism- reduced threat on western Europe and U.S
-Germany Reunited-balances power in Europe
-USSR crumbles- Soviet Union collapses, Warsaw pact folds

126. REGIONAL THREATS
-Middle East- (Iran, Iraq, Libya, Syria)
-Asia- (Taiwan, North Korea)

127. TERRORISM
-Punish terrorists and terrorist-sponsored nations
-Dissuade other nations from using or supporting terrorists

128. WHEN TO USE MILITARY FORCE
-Protect interests- (support of vital national interests with defined objectives
-Sufficient strength to fight/win war
-Have support of US people
-Last resort

129. DETERMING FORCE FACTORS
-Should be threat driven (respond to threats)
-"1&1/2 war readiness"- should be able/ready to fight and win one major war and still have
enough reserves to fight a smaller battle
-Investments help defend and deter

130. Chapter 14: Policy Evaluation
-Policy evaluation is learning about the consequences of public policy
-Policy evaluation research is the objective, systematic, empirical examination of the effects of policy goals

131. Impact of policy is measured through:
target group
impact on group other than the target group
future
direct costs
indirect costs
-Everything pertaining to policy has to be measured both symbolically and tangibly
- Politics used to be: Who gets what, when and how
- Politics has become: who feels what, when and how

132. Ways government agencies review policies:
hearings and reports
site visits
comparison with professional standards
evaluation of complaints

133. What government can do about evaluations:
-Must weigh cost against benefits
-Comparing what has happened with the policy against what would have happened with out it
-Comparison between areas with the policy to that without the policy

134. Experimental policy research:
- Some believe that experimenting with policy idea is best to do before implementing, but this beings about some serious questions:
Are programs predisposed to produce specific results?
People behave differently when they know they are being watched: how effective is the experiment taking this into account?

135. 3) Small group experiments may produce different results than when introduced to a larger participating audience.
4) Politics play a role in what is studied and what policies are implemented: People can interpret findings differently and often times research is politically motivated.

136. Why evaluations fail:
Goals are hard to define
Government agencies are prone to try to show positive impact and don't want to find evidence that shows otherwise
Studies require time, money and man power that is not available

137. How do they explain negative findings
Effects are long range and hard to measure
Effects are subtle and hard to measure
Research is bias and that causes true effects to be hard to find

138. Limits of public policy:
1) some problems do not have solutions
2) expectations set are hard to achieve
3) to solve problems of one group may cause problems for another
4) some problems have more than one cause
5) some policies are more costly than the problems
6) political system is not structured for rational decision making