1. 2 Theories of Leadership
Dr. ADIB A YAHYA, MARS
29 SEPTEMBER 2016

2. Overview of Theories Great Man Theory Trait Theory Behavioral Theories
-Ohio state Studies and Michigan Studies
-Managerial Grid
Contingency Theory :
- Fiedler’s Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Theory
-Cognitive Resource Theory
Situational Theory :
-Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
-House’s Path Goal Theory
-Leader Participation Model

3. Great Man Theory
Leaders are born, not made.
This approach emphasized that a person is born with or without the necessary traits of leaderships.
Early explanations of leadership studied the “traits” of great leaders
“Great man” theories (Gandhi, Lincoln, Napoleon)
Belief that people were born with these traits and only the great people possessed them

4. Great Man Theory ……
Great Man approach actually emphasis “charismatic” leadership. charisma being the Greek word for gift.
No matter what group such a natural leader finds himself in, he will always be recognized for what he is.
According to the great man theory of leadership, leadership calls for certain qualities like commanding personality, charm, courage ,intelligence, persuasiveness and aggressiveness.

5. Trait Theory What characteristics or traits make a person a leader?
Great Man Theory: Individuals are born either with or without the necessary traits for leadership
Trait theories of leadership sought personality, social, physical or intellectual traits that differentiate leaders from non leaders
Trait view has little analytical or predictive value
Technical, conceptual and human skills (Katz 1974)

6. Trait Theories …. Leadership Traits: Ambition and energy
The desire to lead
Honesty and integrity
Self-confidence
Intelligence
Job-relevant knowledge
© 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.
11–6

7. Trait Theory …..
The trait theory is based on the great man theory, but it is more systematic in its analysis of leaders. Like the great man theory, this theory assumes that the leader’s personal traits are the key to leadership success.
Abilities l
Supervising Ability
Intelligence
Initiative
Personal Traits
Self-Assurance
Decisiveness
Masculinity/Famininity
Maturity
Working Class Affinity
Motivators
Need for Occupational
Self-actualization
Power Over Others
High Financial Reward
Job Security
Achievement
Personality Traits

8. Traits of Leaders Intelligence Physical Features Inner Motivation
Maturity
Vision & Foresight
Acceptance of Responsibility
Open-Minded and adaptability
Self-confidence
Human Relations Attitude
Fairness and Objectivity

10. Trait Theory Early on, it was thought that leaders were born with
inherent physiological and personality traits
Age
Height
Intelligence
Academic achievements

11. Stogdill (1974) – identified several general factors that differentiate leaders from non-leaders…
Capacity: problem-solving capabilities, making judgments and working hard
Achievements: accomplishments such as academic record, knowledge and sports
Responsibility: dependability, reliability, self-drive, perseverance, aggressiveness and self-confidence
Participation and involvement: highly developed social interaction, popularity, swift adaptation to changing situations, and easier cooperation compared to non-leaders
Socio-economic status: effective leaders usually belong to higher socio-economic classes

12. Limitations: Trait Theories …
No universal traits that predict leadership in all situations.
Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than “strong” situations.
Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.
Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.

13. Behavioral Theory
In contrast with trait theory, behavioral theory attempts to describe leadership in terms of what leaders do, while trait theory seeks to explain leadership on the basis of what leaders are. Leadership according to this approach is the result of effective role behavior.
Leadership is shown by a person’s acts more than by his traits.
This is an appropriate new research strategy adopted by Michigan Researchers in the sense that the emphasis on the traits is replaced by the emphasis on leader behavior (which could be measured).

14. Behavioral Theory ….
Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from non leaders.
Pattern of actions used by different individuals determines leadership potential
Examples
Autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire
Michigan Studies: Employee centered versus task centered

15. Behavioral Theory ….
Theories that attempt to isolate behaviors that differentiate effective leaders from ineffective leaders
Behavioral studies focus on identifying critical behavioral determinants of leadership that, in turn, could be used to train people to become leaders

16. Behavioral Leadership Studies
The Ohio State Studies sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior
Initiating structure
Consideration
The University of Michigan Studies sought to identify the behavioral characteristics of leaders related to performance effectiveness
Employee oriented
Production oriented

17. Ohio State Studies
11–17

18. University of Michigan Studies
© 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.
11–18

19. Behavioral Theories
Ohio State studies focused on task and social behavior of leaders
Identified two dimensions of leader behavior
Initiating Structure: role of leader in defining his/her role and roles of group members
Consideration: leader’s mutual trust and respect for group members’ ideas and feelings
Two different behavioral theories:
Role Theory
Managerial Grid

20. Role Theory
Assumptions about leaders’ in organizations are shaped by culture, training sessions, modeling by senior managers, etc.
People define roles for themselves and others based on social learning and reading.
People form expectations about the roles that they and others will play.
People subtly encourage others to act within the role expectations they have for them.
People will act within the roles they adopt.

21. Managerial Grid Developed by Drs. Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton
Believed managers have different leadership styles which led to two different dimensions of leadership:
Concern for Production: manager who is task-oriented and focuses on getting results or accomplishing the mission (X-axis of grid)
Concern for People: manager who avoids conflicts and strives for friendly relations with subordinates (Y-axis of grid)

22. Managerial Grid ( Blake & Mouton)

23. Managerial Grid (continued)9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
**manager’s goal is 9,9**

24. Contingency Theories & Situational Theories of Leadership
Fiedler Model
Cognitive Resource Theory
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
Leader-member Exchange Theory
Path-Goal Theory
Leader Participation Model

25. Contingency Theories …..
While trait and behavior theories do help us understand leadership, an important component is missing: the environment in which the leader exists.
Contingency Theory deals with this additional aspect of leadership effectiveness studies.

26. Fiedler Model
The theory that effective groups depend upon a proper match between a leader's style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader.
There are basically three steps in the model 1) Identifying Leadership Style 2) Defining the Situation 3) Matching leaders and situations

27. 1) Identifying Leadership Style
Fiedler believes a key factor in leadership success is the individual’s basic leadership style So he created the Least Prefer Co-worker (LPC) Questionnaire
LPC:-An instrument that tells to measure whether a person is task or relationship oriented

28. Cont… If the low LPC score then the person is task oriented
If the high LPC score then the person is relationship oriented

29. Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale
Pleasant Unpleasant
Friendly Unfriendly
Rejecting Accepting
Tense Relaxed
Cold Warm
Supportive Hostile
Boring Interesting
Quarrelsome Harmonious
Gloomy Cheerful
Open Closed
Backbiting Loyal
Untrustworthy Trustworthy
Considerate Inconsiderate
Nasty Nice
Agreeable Disagreeable
Insincere Sincere
Kind Unkind

30. Scoring
Your final score is the total of the numbers you circled on the 18 scales
57 or less = Low LPC (task motivated)
58-63 = Middle LPC (socio-independent leaders, self directed and not overly concerned with the task or with how others view them)
64 or above = High LPC (motivated by relationships)

31. 2) Defining the Situation
Fiedler identified three contingency dimensions that define the key situational factors
1. Leader-member relations: The degree of confidence, trust, and respect, members have in the leader 2. Task structure: The degree to which the job assignments are procedurized 3. Position Power: The degree of influence a leader has over power variables such as hiring, firing, promotion etc.

32. 3) Matching leaders and Situations
After knowing the leadership style through LPC and defining all the situations, we will chose the leader who will fit for the situation. Two ways in which to improve leader effectiveness 1) Change the leader to fit the situation 2) Change the situation to fit the leader

34. Findings from Fiedler Model

35. Contingency Theory Assumptions: No one best way of leading
Ability to lead contingent upon various situational factors:
Leader’s preferred style
Capabilities and behaviors of followers
Various other situational factors
Effect:
Leaders who are successful in one situation may become unsuccessful if the factors around them change
Contingency theories are a class of behavioral theory that contend that there is no one best way of leading and that a leadership style that is effective in some situations may not be successful in others.
An effect of this is that leaders who are very effective at one place and time may become unsuccessful either when transplanted to another situation or when the factors around them change.
This helps to explain how some leaders who seem for a while to have the 'Midas touch' suddenly appear to go off the boil and make very unsuccessful decisions.
Contingency theory is similar to situational theory in that there is an assumption of no simple one right way. The main difference is that situational theory tends to focus more on the behaviors that the leader should adopt, given situational factors (often about follower behavior), whereas contingency theory takes a broader view that includes contingent factors about leader capability and other variables within the situation.

36. Contingency Theory: Fiedler’s Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Theory
Assumptions:
Leaders prioritize between task-focus and people-focus
Leaders don’t readily change their style
Key situational factor in matching leader to situation:
Relationships
Power
Task structure
LPC Questionnaire
Determines leadership style by measuring responses to 18 pairs of contrasting adjectives.
High score: a relationship-oriented leadership style
Low score: a task-oriented leadership style
Tries to identify the underlying beliefs about people, in particular whether the leader sees others as positive (high LPC) or negative (low LPC).
Fiedler identified the a Least Preferred Co-Worker scoring for leaders by asking them first to think of a person with which they worked that they would like least to work with again, and then to score the person on a range of scales between positive factors (friendly, helpful, cheerful, etc.) and negative factors (unfriendly, unhelpful, gloomy, etc.). A high LPC leader generally scores the other person as positive and a low LPC leader scores them as negative.
High LPC leaders tend to have close and positive relationships and act in a supportive way, even prioritizing the relationship before the task. Low LPC leaders put the task first and will turn to relationships only when they are satisfied with how the work is going.
Three factors are then identified about the leader, member and the task, as follows:
Leader-Member Relations: The extent to which the leader has the support and loyalties of followers and relations with them are friendly and cooperative.
Task structure: The extent to which tasks are standardised, documented and controlled.
Leader's Position-power: The extent to which the leader has authority to assess follower performance and give reward or punishment.

37. Findings of the Fiedler Model

38. Cognitive Resource Theory
A theory of leadership that states that stress unfavorably effects the situation, and intelligence, and experience can lessen the influence of stress on the leader.

39. Cont… A refinement of Fielder’s original model: Stress Levels:
Focuses on stress as the enemy of rationality and creator of unfavorable conditions
A leader’s intelligence and experience influence his or her reaction to that stress
Stress Levels:
Low Stress: Intellectual abilities are effective
High Stress: Leader experiences are effective
Research is supporting the theory

40. Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership (SLT)
A model that focuses on follower “readiness”
Followers can accept or reject the leader
Effectiveness depends on the followers’ response to the leader’s actions
“Readiness” is the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task
A paternal model:
As the child matures, the adult releases more and more control over the situation
As the workers become more ready, the leader becomes more laissez-faire

41. Cont…. Hersey and Blencherd identify four specific leader behaviors
The most effective behavior depends on the follower’s ability and motivation
If followers are unable and unwilling to do a task, the leader needs to give specific and clear directions.
If followers are unable and willing, The leader need to display a high task orientation.
If the followers are able and unwilling, The leader needs to use a supportive and participative style.
If followers are both able and willing, The leader doesn't need to do much.

42. Situational Leadership Theory
HT&HR
HR&LT
HT&LR
LT&LR
Immature
Mature

43. Situational Leadership
Situational factors (motivation, capability of followers, relationship between followers and leader) determine the best action of leader
Leader must be flexible to diagnosis leadership style appropriate for situation and be able to apply style
No one best leadership style for all situations

44. Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership (1977)
Identified 4 different leadership styles based on readiness of followers
R1. Telling (high task/low relationship behavior)
Giving considerable attention to defining roles and goals
Recommended for new staff, repetitive work, work needed in a short time span
Used when people are unable and unwilling
R2. Selling (high task/high relationship behavior)
Most direction given by leader encouraging people to ‘buy into’ task
Used when people are willing but unable
R3. Participating (high relationship/low task behavior)
Decision making shared between leaders and followers, role of leader to facilitate and communicate
Used when people are able but unwilling
R4. Delegating (low relationship/low task behavior)
Leader identifies problem but followers are responsible for carrying out response
Used if people are able and willing

45. Hersey & Blanchard’s Model
Source: Reprinted with permission from the Center for Leadership Studies. Situational Leadership® is a registered trademark of the Center for Leadership Studies. Escondido, California. All rights reserved.

46. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Leaders create in-groups and out-groups, and subordinates with in-group status will have higher performances ratings, less turnover, and greater satisfaction with their superior.
LMX Premise:
Because of time pressures, leaders form a special relationship with a small group of followers: the “in-group”
This in-group is trusted and gets more time and attention from the leader (more “exchanges”)
All other followers are in the “out-group” and get less of the leader’s attention and tend to have formal relationships with the leader (fewer “exchanges”)
Leaders pick group members early in the relationship

47. Leader-Member Exchange Theory

48. House’s Path-Goal Theory
The theory that a leader’s behavior is acceptable to subordinates insofar as they view it as a source of either immediate or future satisfaction.
The Theory:
Leaders provide followers with information, support, and resources to help them achieve their goals
Leaders help clarify the “path” to the worker’s goals
Leaders can display multiple leadership types

49. Path-Goal Theory
11–49

50. Cont… Four types of leaders: Directive: focuses on the work to be done
Supportive: focuses on the well-being of the worker
Participative: consults with employees in decision-making
Achievement-Oriented: sets challenging goals

51. The Path-Goal Theory

52. Path-Goal Theory

54. Vroom & Yetton’s Leader-Participation Model
A leadership theory that provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision making in different situations.
How a leader makes decisions is as important as what is decided
Premise:
Leader behaviors must adjust to reflect task structure
“Normative” model: tells leaders how participative to be in their decision-making of a decision tree.

55. Participative Theories
Assumes the following
Involvement in decision-making improves the understanding of the issues involved and the commitment of those who must carry out the decisions.
People are less competitive and more collaborative when they are working on joint goals.
Several people deciding together make better decisions than one person alone.
Two different participative theories:
Lewin’s leadership styles
Likert’s leadership styles

56. Lewin’s Leadership styles
Kurt Lewin’s studies at the University of Iowa (1939)
Identified three different styles of leadership:
Autocratic: centralized authority, low participation
(works where input would not change decision or employee motivation, excessive styles lead to revolution)
Democratic: involvement, feedback
(appreciated by people, most effective style but problematic when there are a range of opinions)
Laissez-Faire: hands-off management
(works when people are motivated and there is no requirement for central coordination)

57. Likert’s system of Leadership
Rensis Likert and his associates studied the patterns and styles of managers for three decades at the University of Michigan, USA, and identified a four-fold model of management systems.
The model was developed on the basis of a questionnaire administered to managers in over 200 organizations and research into the performance characteristics of different types of organizations.
The four systems of management system or the four leadership styles identified by Likert are:

58. System 1 - Exploitative Authoritative: Responsibility lies in the hands of the people at the upper echelons of the hierarchy. The superior has no trust and confidence in subordinates. The decisions are imposed on subordinates and they do not feel free at all to discuss things about the job with their superior. The teamwork or communication is very little and the motivation is based on threats.
System 2 - Benevolent Authoritative: The responsibility lies at the managerial levels but not at the lower levels of the organizational hierarchy. The superior has condescending confidence and trust in subordinates (master-servant relationship). Here again, the subordinates do not feel free to discuss things about the job with their superior. The teamwork or communication is very little and motivation is based on a system of rewards.
System 3 - Consultative: Responsibility is spread widely through the organizational hierarchy. The superior has substantial but not complete confidence in subordinates. Some amount of discussion about job related things takes place between the superior and subordinates. There is a fair amount of teamwork, and communication takes place vertically and horizontally. The motivation is based on rewards and involvement in the job.
System 4 - Participative: Responsibility for achieving the organizational goals is widespread throughout the organizational hierarchy. There is a high level of confidence that the superior has in his subordinates. There is a high level of teamwork, communication, and participation.

59. Conclusion
According to Rensis Likert, the nearer the behavioral characteristics of an organization approach System 4 (Participative), the more likely this will lead to long-term improvement in staff turnover and high productivity, low scrap, low costs, and high earnings, if an organization wants to achieve optimum effectiveness, then this is the ideal system

60. Summary of Leadership Theories
Theory
Leadership Based On…
Trait Theory
Leaders born with leadership traits
Behavioral Theory
Initial structure and consideration
- Role Theory
Shaped by culture, training, modeling
- Managerial Grid
Concern for production and concern for people
Participative Leadership
More people involved = better collaboration
- Lewin’s Style
Autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire
- Likert’s Style
Task oriented, relationship oriented, participative style
Contingency Theories
No one best leadership style
- Fiedler’s LPC Theory
Task focus v. relationship focus
- Cognitive Resource Theory
Intelligence and experience make a difference
- House’s Path Goal Theory
Help followers make their goals compatible with organizational goals
Situational Leadership
Similar to contingency theory
- Hersey and Blanchard
Based on relationship between leader and follower and task behavior
- Vroom & Yetton
Decision quality and decision acceptance