1. Can MPA's contribute to conserving large, mobile sharks, like white sharks?
Dr Alison Kock
A very good morning to all of you., and a big thank-you to Robin and the team for inviting me to talk about whether MPA’s can be of benefit to large, mobile sharks, like white sharks?
Photo: Jean Tresfon

2. Shark populations Populations of large predatory sharks are in decline
Slow growth, late maturity and low reproductive output = vulnerable to human threats
Mitigating declines needed because of important role in regulation of marine ecosystem dynamics
Shark populations around the world are in decline. Primarily due to intensive exploitation, incidental bycatch & habitat loss.
Unlike many fish populations, sharks are not very resilient to exploitation, due to slow growth, late maturity and produce few young.
It is very important that we mitigate declines because of the important role large sharks play in the regulation of marine ecosystem dynamics.

3. MPA’s & sharks
Important management tool for protecting habitats and sedentary fishes
Small MPA’s unlikely to be effective for highly mobile fishes or sharks
But, MPA’s could possibly be effective if core habitat, especially those for feeding, breeding and gestation, is protected
In preparation for this talk I did a lot of scientific papers and the following is what I could find in theory regards MPA’s and sharks.
We know MPA’s are an NB management tool for sedentary fish and habitats.
In the past it has been considered that small MPA’s are unlikely to be effective for highly mobile animals.
However, in theory, if MPA’s could protect core areas or critical habitats they could possibly be effective.
But, the benefits would depend on: the level of protection, amount of time spent inside MPA and the life history stage it protected.
Before I move on to showing you some examples in practice of sharks and MPA’s, lets look at some other examples of highly migratory species benefitting from MPA’s.
Benefits will depend on:
Level of protection
Amount of time spent inside MPA
Life-history stage protected

4. Seabirds
Multiple studies – protecting key breeding and feeding areas can be effective (Newton 2008)
E.g. Namibian Islands Marine Protected area (penguins, gannets, bank cormorants) (Ludynia et al. 2012)
E.g. Robben Island – penguins (Sherley et al. 2015)
MPA’s need to be part of holistic approach
Studies of migratory birds, e.g. albatross, have found that protecting key areas, such as feeding or reproductive grounds, can sufficiently conserve highly mobile species.
Closer to home, the Namibian Islands Marine Protected Area used tracking data (penguins, gannets, bank cormorants) to help set boundaries & confirmed adequacy to protect key foraging grounds (Ludynia et al. 2012).
Experimental fishery closure around Robben Island – chick survival increased by 18% (led to predicted 27% higher population) – but still overall decline.
Can be effective as part of a holistic approach (Sherley et al. 2015).

5. Turtles
Turtles are also highly migratory and difficult to protect throughout their range. Thus there is a focus on protecting nesting sites and foraging areas (Revuelta et al. 2015)
Close to home a study from the ISimangaliso MPA highlighted that the marine reserve can be effective when boundaries incorporate nesting sites, but they found that the marine reserve strongly favours loggerheads (providing 95% protection), versus only 25% protection for leatherbacks. They highlighted the need for the MPA to be adaptive to new data.
Focus on nesting sites and feeding areas (Revuelta et al. 2015)
E.g. Isimangaliso MPA – effective for loggerheads (95% protection), not leatherbacks (25% protection) (Nel et al. 2013)
MPA boundaries need to be adaptive to new data

6. Killer Whales
Photo: Brocq Maxey
Even very large, migratory and protected species, like the killer whales can benefit from MPA’s.
In Canada, killer whales show a strong preference for sanctuary zones compared to adjacent waters for feeding and beach rubbing.
The closed areas comprise only 0.001% of range, but are used 6.5% of the time.
Thus, the take home message is that even highly mobile mega -fauna species can benefit from networks of sanctuaries.
Canada – strong preference for sanctuary zones (feeding & beach rubbing)
Sanctuaries comprise 0.001% of killer whales range, but utilized 6.5% of the time (Williams et al. 2009)
Even mega fauna can benefit from strategic closed areas

7. Shark characteristics – poor
So, lets take a look at what shark behaviours lends itself poorly to MPA’s.
Wide ranging, large migrations, with many threats – these traits are shared with the other species like seabirds, turtles and whales.
Wide ranging
Large migrations across different habitats
Many different threats
Photo: Morne Hardenberg

8. Shark characteristics – good
But, there are many behaviours which favour MPA protection.
These are spatially defined feeding areas, like seal colonies, specific nursery or pupping areas, philopatry (sharks return year after year to place of birth), even white sharks that show high temporary residency to certain areas, and lastly many shark species segregate by size or sex during part of their lives, thus making certain areas / times even more risky when faced with threats, but an opportunity for strategic time or area closures.
Thus, while they do have traits that don’t favour MPA’s, they have more traits that do.
But of course, we need research on their detailed movements and what the critical habitat is to inform spatial planning.
Photo: Dave van Beuningen
Specific feeding areas
Nursery / pupping areas
Philopatry / site-fidelity
Temporary residency
Size / sex segregation

9. Smooth hound sharks – Langebaan
Commercially exploited
Extended residency in 34 km² MPA
Tagged sharks spent 74% time (year 1) and 80% time (year 2) in no-take zone
Viable option for sharks with high residency
(Da Silva et al. 2013)
So, lets take a look at some examples of sharks and MPA’s. A local study on a smaller, and commercially exploited sharks, the smooth hound sharks, demonstrated that these sharks had very high residency in the Langebaan MPA, spending between 70-80% of their time inside the protected area boundaries. They concluded that the MPA is a viable option for species with high residency like this.
But, what about larger sharks?

10. Sandbar & Dusky sharks – North Carolina, US
Commercially caught
Experiencing overfishing
Fisheries management
Time/area closure implemented
Focused on pupping & nursery area
Protect juvenile sandbar sharks and increase survival
Photo: Andy Murch
In the US, both sandbar and dusky sharks are commercially exploited and experiencing overfishing. Traditionally implemented fisheries management options such as effort limit, size limits. But more recently, added a time / area closure of a defined pupping and nursery area. The aim is to increase survival of juveniles.
Photo: Alan C Egan

11. Ragged tooth sharks – Australia
Ragged tooth sharks are critically endangered in Australia.
Along eastern Australia – 26 MPA were set up to manage in part to manage interactions between ragged tooth sharks and humans as part of Recovery Plan for this species.
Seen establishment of previously abandoned areas.
Critically endangered in Australia (Lynch et al. 2013).
Network of 26 MPA’s (across multiple jurisdictions)
Re-establishment of previously abandoned areas

12. White Sharks Photo: Morne Hardenberg, Adrian Hewitt
Fully protected in SA
1st question – do they need more protection?
Some would argue no – I would argue yes – and here is why:
Population is small and vulnerable.
We know they are caught in fisheries as bycatch – but seldom reported
Regularly caught by recreational sport fishermen up and down coast near aggregation areas – post release survival rate unknown.
High prices for trophies (teeth and jaws) – poaching incentive
Persecuted in KZN and other countries (whole different issue and debate)
Long-term impact of heavy metals and toxins unknown.
Still face many threats.
Seals (stable food source), but other sharks and fish species – many overexploited.
Photo: Morne Hardenberg, Adrian Hewitt

13. White sharks – South Africa
Algoa Bay
False Bay
Four established white shark aggregation sites, likely more e.g. De Hoop, but these 4 are well researched and have defined areas of use.
Research shows repeated use over many years.
Algoa Bay – possible nursery area
Threats – bycatch in fisheries (unreported). Persecution (human-wildlife conflict).
Mossel Bay
Gansbaai

14. White sharks – False Bay
Unregulated boats at Seal Island.
Protecting feeding – up to 10 boats chasing after sharks and seals and interrupting feeding.
Inshore – possible feeding and resting – fisheries, including sport fishing – could use information to ban certain gear types.
Kock et al. submitted

15. Unintended consequences
Possible increase in human-shark conflict
Needs careful consideration & planned response
Bull sharks, tiger sharks and white sharks
E.g. Reunion

16. ATAP & monitoring Need detailed information on shark movements
Collaborative network

17. Valuable eco-tourism Photo: Morne Hardenberg
Around the world governments are reaping economic benefits of shark dive tourism – people travel across the world to dive with different sharks
Places like Bahamas have declared all territorial waters shark sanctuaries. Not always possible, but can reap benefits on smaller scale.
Matt Dicken tiger shark diving Aliwal MPA – direct value of tiger shark diving estimated to be > 12 million rand per year.
TMNP – sevengill sharks popular – as well as other species of endemic cat sharks.
Photo: Morne Hardenberg

18. MPA ambassadors of healthy eco-systems
Iconic status leveraged for outreach, education and marketing
Indicators of eco-system health
Can be used much more than they currently are. Lions of the marine world.
Photo: Morne Hardenberg

19. Enforcement is key to success
Failed for sharks when restrictions not enforced
E.g. Italian waters 3 /15 had effective enforcement (only 3 showed increased predator abundance) (Guidetti et al. 2008)
E.g. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park - only most strictly protected no-entry zones had the highest shark abundance (Dulvy 2006)

20. Thank-you alison@sharkspotters.org.za Photo: Morne Hardenberg
So, can MPA’s be effective at protecting large, mobile sharks, like white sharks?
Yes, I think they can, and I think MPA’s can benefit from sharks. Thank-you.
Shark behaviour lends itself well to protection of critical habitats
Detailed information required on spatial use of sharks & reasons of use (i.e. feeding, socialising, reproduction)
MPA - needs to decrease fishing mortality or increase survival
Strategically placed closed areas can benefit large, mobile sharks, even white sharks
Need to mitigate human-wildlife conflict
Valuable eco-tourism possibilities
Sharks can be used as ambassadors for MPA’s
Enforcement is key to success
Photo: Morne Hardenberg