1. LUISS – Ph. D. in Political Theory Via Oreste Tommasini, 1, Room 111 Problems of International Organization A cycle of five lectures Prof. Daniele Archibugi

2. The words “international organisation”
Inter-what? nations, states, governments?
Inter meaning across or between?
“Organisation” or “Organisations”?
Is there one single international organisation?
What we study under the entry “International Organisation”?

5. Alternatives to International Organizations
Unilateral action
Climate change: US defects from provision of a public good (European perspective!)
US-Iraq War: US shoulders provision of a public good (US government perspective!)
Institution without organization
Antarctic Treaty 1959

6. Typologies of International Organizations
Governmental/Non governmental
Global/Regional
Vast competencies/Restricted competencies
Real power/Symbolic Power
Domination/Function

7. Inter-Governmental International Organisations (IGOs)
Existence of member states and secretariat:
Permanent Institutions
Formal and not informal, and based on a Charter, Statute, Treaty (G8 is therefore not an IGO)
Three or more members

8. International Non-Governmental Organisations (INGOs)
Members are individuals or private organisations
Participation of individuals of more than one country, but also aim extends to more than one country
Recognition from whom? Governments, International Organizations or global public opinion?

9. Growth of Intergovernmental Organizations
Year
1909
1976
1987
1997
Number 37
252
1,649
1,850

10. Growth of Non-governmental Organizations
Year
1909
1976
1987
1997
Number
176
5,155
14,943
15,965

14. Global Organisations
Membership is potentially open to all territorial states
The case of greatest success: the United Nations
More limited cases, also among the INGOs.
All UN specialized agencies are open to membership, but not all UN member states join them

15. Regional Organisations
Typical in a geographical region
The most sophisticated: the European Union
Other regional organisations: NATO, OECD
Regional Customs Union: Mercosur, Nafta, Asean
Political Regional Union: The Arab League

16. Vast Competencies Catholic Church The United Nations
The European Union and the European Commission
NATO
Divergence between formal and substantial competences: what are the resources available?

18. Specific Competencies
International Postal Union
Danube River Authority
NAFTA
Amnesty International
International Studies Association
Italian Consortium of Solidarity

20. Power Available Political, economic, military, symbolic power
Instruments in the hands of the International Organisation: own resources or resources coming from the member states?
The case of peace-keeping
The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank
The possibility of sanctions
A very important sanction: exclusion

21. Power Available “Tools of the strong” or “shields of the weak”?
Importance of sovereignty – veto system
Expected benefits: direct gains or side payments
Stronger states accept limitations to their autonomy
Weaker states accept predominant role of stronger states

24. Why IO? Advantages of Delegation Advantages of Representations
Advantages for elites over the demos

25. International Organisations and Sovereign States
What happen to state sovereignty when international organisations “erode their competencies?
What will remain of sovereignty?
What does it mean democratic deficit in IO?
The functionalist vision

26. Once Nixon and Breznev

27. Today Bush and Blair

28. Even the Security Council is an alternative to power politics

29. A case of IO Will it be effective? What is its authority?
What alternatives are left open to politics?

31. Democracy in International Organizations
LUISS – Ph. D. in Political Theory Via Oreste Tommasini, 1, Room 111 Problems of International Organization A cycle of five lectures Prof. Daniele Archibugi
Lecture 2
Democracy in International Organizations
March 27th 2007,

34. How should this change International Organisations?

36. The Democratic Criteria in International Organizations
Based on a Charter or a formal agreement
Legal norms
Publicity of acts
Principle of equality of the participants
Decisions taken by adding up preferences (not necessarily equality of votes)

37. The democratic criteria not applied in international organisations
Majority rule
Actions in the interest of everybody and not just of a majority
Respect of the minorities
Much greater abuse of the existing legal norms
Members are states and not individuals

38. The democratic schizophrenia
Democracy is becoming a “universal” value, which Western countries could decide to enforce anywhere
But there is no intention to extend the values of democracy also beyond state borders or in international organisations

39. A Theory of Democracy
Nonviolence in the public sphere (Popper, Bobbio)
Popular control on decision-making and decision-makers (David Beetham)
Political equality among citizens in participation and on exercising control (David Beetham)

40. Nonviolence: Is it possible to apply the principle selectively?
Technically, certainly it is. Democratic states have traditionally applied a different way to use force within and without the community

41. Different methods at home and abroad Pericles and Bush

42. How a condition of external treat or of war endanger a democracy
Security becomes stronger at expenses of transparency and control
The military power dominates the civilian
Offensive behaviour against external agents

43. Political control is not allowed
Governments are accountable to their citizens only
Foreign policy is dominated by secrecy, as the practice of diplomacy continues to show

44. Lack of political equality
A standard principle of democracy is that all persons affected by a decision should have a say
In a world made by “overlapping communities of fate” (David Held), this is more easy to say than to do

45. How to export democracy?

46. Cosmopolitan Democracy as a political project
A normative approach to political theory
David Held, Mary Kaldor, Richard Falk
Jurgen Habermas, Ulrich Beck
Andrew Linklater, Tony McGrew and other IR normative theorists
Social Forums, Patomaki & Teivenen

47. The Enemies of Global Democracy
Enemies of democracy: good to fight against them!
Other critics by democratic theorists:
---- Global democracy it is not possible
---- Global democracy it is not desirable
---- Global democracy it is not needed

48. Global democracy is not possible no. 1
Realist approach to international relations stress the role of interests in world politics (Zolo, Buzan)
But: how come that democracy has won within states?
Any global democracy will be the outcome of a conflict (our understanding informed on agonistic democracy)

49. Global democracy is not possible no. 2
Lack of a global demos (Dahl).
But: the demos has been created in the United States. What about the European Union?
And a political community is not necessarily a cultural community.

50. Seattle, 1999

51. London, 15 February 2003 2 millions

52. Rome, 15 February 2003 3 millions

53. Antarctica, 15 February 2003

54. Global Social Movements
They are not a global demos
But they are an explicit force that push for political change
Exclusion is high (only a few can afford to participate to cosmopolitics), but this is a additional reason to generate institutions

55. Global democracy is not possible no. 3
Kymlicka: “democratic politics is politics in the Vernacular”
Democratic politics is politics in Esperanto
Democracy is about understanding the reasons of others and about acceptance of diversity

57. Indian Parliament, Four Official Languages

58. European Parliament 25 European Languages

59. Global democracy is not desirable no. 1
Fear of domination in internal affairs: but are political communities independent?
Fear of concentration of force (Zolo, Chandler): isn’t force already concentrated?
To extend democratic institutions globally helps to counter-act hegemony

60. Even the Security Council is an alternative to power politics

61. Global democracy is not desirable no. 2
Fear of loosing control in the internal affairs by small democratic communities wish high degree of self-determination

62. Global democracy is not desirable no. 3
But: if multiculturalism can be applied inside states, why should it not be applied globally?
Are political communities independent?

63. Global democracy is not needed
Internal democratisation would solve international problems
---- The democratic peace hypotheses (Russett)
--- “Universal democracy (Diamond)
---- The Law of Peoples (Rawls)
But:
do democratic states behave democratically in international affairs?
There is something more than war in world politics

64. What is the yardstick to assess the foreign policy of a democratic state?
Compare it with autocratic states
Compare it with the rules applied internally

65. What is cosmopolitan democracy?
Multi-layer governance
Applied differently at different scale-levels
Nurtured by deliberative democracy (stake- holders) and new forms of organised interests
Replaces sovereignty with constitutionalism

66. Substantive goals of cosmopolitan democracy
Limited objectives
Interstate peace
Protection of human rights
Real humanitarian intervention
Partial re-distribution of income and resources
In general, concerns survival

67. The structure of cosmopolitan democracy

68. What does it mean the concept of democracy beyond the State?
Nonviolence
from international peace to internal democracy
minimisation of organised violence
development and respect of the rule of law
Political control
transparency: Bentham, Madison, Kant
accountability to all stakeholders
Political equality
participation of stakeholders
govern in the interest of all and not of the majority (or the group appointing the government)

69. The Reform of the United Nations
LUISS – Ph. D. in Political Theory Via Oreste Tommasini, 1, Problems of International Organization A cycle of five lectures Prof. Daniele Archibugi
Lecture 3
The Reform of the United Nations
Tuesday 3° April 2007,

73. THE STRUCTURE OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Formally equal rights of member states
One state, one vote in the General Assembly
Veto Power in the Security Council
States represented by governments‘ effectiveness and not by legitimacy
States represented by their government and not by the citizens

74. Two hypocrites at the UN
Developing countries: complaining about the lack of democracy in the UN and often repressing their own people at home
Powerful countries: defenders of human rights and democracy in other countries but not keen to extend the same notions at the UN

76. Does the UN need to be reformed? Alternative views
BUSH - It needs to get closer to the current distribution of power (Realist view)
ANNAN - If it is not broke don’t fix it (Pragmatic)
BOUTROS-GHALI - It needs to enforce peace and to develop the principles of democracy (Idealist view)
BAN KI-MOON – Who knows….

77. Constitutional Reform of the UN
It discusses its constitutional structure. Formal structure and not substantive policies
It does not take into account other issues such as:
Financing the UN
The administration of the UN
The role played by the specialized agencies

78. Summary of the Issues General Assembly Security Council Judicial Power
Enlarge Representation to peoples and not just governments
Peace-Keeping (next week)

79. UN General Assembly

80. THE UN GENERAL ASSEMBLY
Present structure
Principle «one state, one vote»
Each country is represented by five members, all of them appointed by the state's government
Suggested reforms
Delegates must represent both government and opposition.
Direct election of one or two delegates
Weighted votes according to population, GDP and other criteria in order to assure that states which are more concerned on selected issues have a larger share in decision-making

81. THE UN SECURITY COUNCIL

82. THE UN SECURITY COUNCIL
Debate about the enlargement: Japan, Germany, and therefore India, Brazil, Nigeria want to join as permanent members
Claim based on: Fees paid to the UN, Population, Geographical Representation
AN ALTERNATIVE VIEW:
Rotating membership, EU membership, enlargement to cover other countries

83. The Role of Italian Diplomacy

84. THE UN SECURITY COUNCIL
Present structure
5 permanent members with power of veto and 10 members elected by the General Assembly
Suggested reforms
Enforcement of the Charter on non application of veto on procedural issues
 Enforcement of the Charter on abstention of involved parties
 Limitation and, in the future, abolition of the power of veto
 Opening to regional organizations such as the European Union
Consultative vote to representatives of civil society

85. Legal Pacifism
Act through the legal instruments (international law and the judicial power)
Long stream of legal pacifism
Hans Kelsen’s proposals
The trial of Nuremberg
Individual and state responsibility
International rule of law or global democracy?
Can law be effective without power?

86. INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

87. THE INTERNATINAL COURT OF JUSTICE
Present competences
Optional acceptance of jurisdiction by states
Suggested reforms
Compulsory jurisdiction as consequence of UNO membership
 Jurisdiction decided by the Court and not on states' demand
 Sanctions and exclusion from UN activities for governments which do not enforce the Court's sentences

88. INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT

89. INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT
Difficulty in implementation
Many states are not yet members
Some members (such as the USA) are asking for immunity
Will it be the justice of the stronger over the weaker?

94. Four possible ways to trial Saddam Hussein
US Military Tribunal (as in Nuremberg)
Ad Hoc Tribunal (as in the Ex-Yugoslavia)
Use the International Criminal Court
An Iraqi Tribunal

95. THE ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY
Present structure
Occasional gatherings devoted to specific issues
Recognition of selected NGOs
Suggested reforms
Assembly of national members of parliaments
Permanent Forum of NGOs
Elected parliamentary assembly with consultative powers

97. Can peoples without states solve all problems of the world?

98. A World Parliament?: Criterion of representation “one person, one vote” Number of MPs not necessarily proportional to the voters What functions?

99. UN PEACEKEEPING
next
week……

100. LUISS – Ph. D. in Political Theory Via Oreste Tommasini, 1, Room 111 Problems of International Organization A cycle of five lectures Prof. Daniele Archibugi
Lecture 4
The Use of Force
April 11° 2007,

101. From Thomas Hobbes to Max Weber:
Internal use of force
From Thomas Hobbes to Max Weber:
State authority is based upon the “monopoly” on the use of legitimate force

102. What is “internal”? Slow and progressive process of state building
Westphalia model?
Congress of Vienna affirmation?
League of Nations codification?
United Nations statement?

103. What about external violence? (war)
Long attempt to reduce the agents that could use force
Sub-state subjects include pirates, bandits, insurgents, religious and ethnic minorities
Who could provide the appropriate status? The principle of recognition

104. Did it imply that external violence was to be banned?
Ius gentium approach from Alberico Gentili to Michael Walzer: reduce, not to ban it
Just and unjust wars

105. What are the criteria for a just war in the ius gentium approach?
Just cause (jus ad bellum)
Legitimate authority
Proportionality (just in bello)
Consequential

106. Alberico Gentili De iure belli in three volumes
First book: ius ad bellum
Second book: ius in bello
Third book: ius post bellum (the spoils)
Never, ever, assumption that the winner is also right. Pragmatic approach that was liked by….

107. Carl Schmitt Nazi legal theorist Never accepted the Nuremberg trial
Regarded war as part of human nature

108. Humanitarian Intervention
Who is authorized to perform it?
For which reasons?
Grotius: atrocities, genocide, human sacrifices, bestiality, mistreatment of parents, sodomy….. all justify intervention…..
But states only can undertake them

109. Atrocities and genocide

110. Mistreatment of parents

111. Cannibalism

112. And… what about the witches burned in Europe?

113. Gentili vs Grotius

114. Alberico Gentili, De Iure Belli, I,9
“But if men in another state live in a manner different from that which we follow in our state, they surely do us no wrong”

115. The dogma of sovereignty
More and more, the legal authorization for interventions in the interest of the others has been reduced
Saint-Pierre and Kant: no interference in internal affairs
This has not prevented wars, but at least it has more and more become clear that each state was fighting its own cause

116. The recourse to collective intervention to prevent wars
From Grotius to Vattel: intervention allowed when there are already insurgents
The League of Nations and the United Nations as attempts to stop wars
Progressive reinforcement of the notion that no intervention should be made for the benefit of the people (even when a people or an ethnic minority is suffering)

117. The UN promised much more than it could deliver
The Charter promised to ban wars and to protect human rights
In fact, it managed only partially to deliver these goods
Chapter VI ½ : Peacekeeping
No requirements about the internal regime of member countries

118. UN PEACEKEEPING

119. Traditional peace-keeping operations
Consent of belligerents
Armistice
Troops from member states
Light weapon
No participation to war but in self-defence
Neutrality rather than impartiality
Not for humanitarian intervention

120. Humanitarian Intervention 1945-89
Carried out mainly by states in case of civil wars
Success stories:
India in East Pakistan (1971)
Vietnam in Cambodia (1978)
Tanzania in Uganda (1979)
No democratic countries involved….

121. New Peace-Keeping Conflicts within rather than among states
Not necessarily authorised by conflicting parties
Increase in the quantity and quality of intervention
Typical cases: Cambodia, Mozambique, Bosnia, Somalia, Kossovo?

122. Too much or too little humanitarian intervention? The currnet dilemma

123. For a cosmopolitan humanitarian intervention
In which cases is it necessary to intervene?
Who is authorised to decide when a humanitarian intervention is needed?
How is it necessary to intervene?
Who is going to intervene?

124. Good willing states?

125. Self-determination of peoples
LUISS – Ph. D. in Political Theory Via Oreste Tommasini, 1, Room 111 Problems of International Organization A cycle of five lectures Prof. Daniele Archibugi
Lecture 5
Self-determination of peoples
17° April 2007,

126. Defining the Keywords: Self-Determination
Self-Determination from the Inside
Allowing people to appoint their government
Limit the intervention of institutions in the individual life of the members of the community
Self-Determination from the Outside
Allowing a community to be self-ruled
Limit the intervention of a community in the affairs of other communities

127. Defining the Keywords: People
It does not seem to be clear what are the boundaries of a people. Some possible criteria
Race? What about the Jews in Germany
Language? What about India
Religion? What about Germany
Common historical legacy? What about the USA
Constitutional People?What about cultural differences

128. One people, one nation-state
One people, one nation-state? This was the political program of Joan d’Arc

129. One people, one nation-state?
During the XIX Century, multi-national states collapsed in Europe (Austro-Hungarian Empire)
Nationalism was also a consequence of a struggle for democracy, i.e. internal self- determination

130. The Austro-Hungarian Empire

131. Italy 1961

133. Nigeria 478 spoken languages

134. A first attempt: the way out of the first world war
Vladimir Lenin: self- determination of peoples mainly meant as INTERNAL from the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie. “A peace without annexations and reparations”

135. A first attempt: the way out of the first world war
Woodrow Wilson:
self-determination mainly meant as political autonomy for young nations. Re-draw the boundaries for a peaceful and self- ruled Europe

136. Theory has to meet history and geography
The Paris Conference showed that it is more difficult than expected to generate homogeneous states

138. Three meanings of self-determination
Rights of colonial peoples to become states
Right of peoples to secession from state
Rights of peoples as minorities inside the state

139. Normative Aim of the work
Minimize the use of violence to define the boundaries of political communities
To avoid ethnic cleansing
To achieve political communities where individual and collective human rights are enforced

143. Rights of colonial peoples to become states
India, Algeria, Angola, 100 UN member countries
There is no state law which allowed colonies to get independence.
The UN law helped former colonies to become independent states

144. Rights of colonial peoples to become states Critical considerations
Too often colonial territories were not a nation (India, Angola, Algeria)
As soon as independent movements managed to get external self- determination, they repressed internal self- determination

145. Right of peoples to secession from state
Achieved: Republics of the former Soviet Union, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia. 22 new states since 1989
Claimed: Kosovo, Basque Countries, Quebec, Scotland, Kurdistan, Padania

148. Right of peoples to secession from state Internal Law
Generally not existing in national public law. Exception: Canada
Request of procedures to evaluate secession through the consultation of majorities and minorities, protection of human rights and sharing of strategic resources

149. Right of peoples to secession from state International Law
Non existent. The international community recognizes peoples after the conquest of a territory
Request of arbitral activity of international institutions in redefining controversial frontiers and guaranteeing protection of human rights in new states

150. Right of peoples to secession from state A sad chain
Denial by state A of the rights of minority B
Minority B see secession as the only possibility to have their rights recognized
Minority B denies the rights of their own internal minority C
This, in turn, forces A to “protect” C

152. Rights of peoples as minorities inside the state
Native populations (Australian aborigines, indigenous peoples in the USA and Canada)
Ethnic minorities (Basques, Quebeckers, South Tyroleans)
Immigrants (Turks in Germany, Arabs in France, Albanians in Italy)

153. Rights of peoples as minorities inside the state Internal Law
Some state allow collective minority rights for education, provision of services access to public offices
There are not yet periodic assessment of the rights of minorities

154. Rights of peoples as minorities inside the state International Law
So far, the rights of minorities are considered internal affairs of sovereign states
International organisations should deal also with the protection of the cultural and political identity of minorities

155. Uni-lateral secession?
Uni-lateral secession can solve some problems and create other problems
To re-draw the boundaries of a country imply to create new minorities
There is no gain in making an oppressed minority an oppressing majority

156. A Cosmopolitan Perspective: Arbitration
Empower international institutions of arbitration. Nobody can be a judge in its own case
Sovereignty does not help
A significant case: Northern Ireland