1. PSYCHOLOGY 40S Research methods C. McMurray
Source:
David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2006
Psychology 7e in Modules

2. The Need for Psychological Science
Intuition & Common Sense
Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature.
Intuition and common sense may help us with our questions but they are not free of error.
Psychology 7e in Modules

3. Errors of Common Sense Try this !
Fold a piece of paper (0.1 mm thick) 100 times. How thick will it be?
800,000,000,000,000 times the distance between the sun and the earth.
Psychology 7e in Modules

4. How Folding Paper Can Get You to the Moon
Folding paper video

5. Why is Research Important?
Source :Blair-Broeker/Ernst, Thinking About Psychology

6. Goals of Psychology The four basic goals of psychology are to:
Describe
Explain
Predict
Influence
To achieve these goals psychologists rely on various methods of research to accomplish each of these goals.
(Descriptive research, correlational research and experimental research)

7. Hindsight Bias is the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon.
Hindsight bias can make research findings seem like mere common sense!
The goal of scientific research, however, is to predict what will happen in advance.
OBJECTIVE 1| Describe hindsight bias and explain how it can make research findings seem like mere common sense.
“Anything seems commonplace, once explained.” Dr. Watson to Sherlock Holmes.
Two phenomena – hindsight bias and judgmental overconfidence – illustrate why we cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense.
Psychology 7e in Modules

8. Overconfidence
Overconfidence is thinking that we know more than we actually know.
Anagram
How long do you think it would take to unscramble these anagrams?
WREAT
WATER
ETYRN
ENTRY
OBJECTIVE 2| Describe how overconfidence contaminates our everyday judgments.
People said it would take about 10 seconds, yet on average they took about 3 minutes (Goranson, 1978).
SREBA
BEARS
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9. Critical thinking does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly.
It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions.

10. Scientific Method
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations.
Four Basic Steps:
Formulate a specific question that can be tested
Design a study to collect relevant data
Analyze the data to arrive at conclusions
Report the results
Psychology 7e in Modules

11. Step 1: Formulate a specific question that can be tested
Does low self-esteem contribute to depression? A Hypothesis is a testable prediction or an educated guess about the relationship between variables. Example: People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed. Variable is a factor that can vary or change.

12. Step 2: Design a study to collect relevant data
Research would require us to administer tests of self-esteem and depression. Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis. Research aims to gather data that either supports or disproves a hypothesis.

13. Step 3: Analyze the data to arrive at conclusions
Once observations have been made and measurements have been collected, the data needs to be summarized and analyzed. Researchers use the methods of a branch of mathematics known as statistics.

14. Step 4: Report the results
Researchers publish or share their finding with other scientists. In addition to reporting their results, psychologists provide a detailed description of the study itself. Describing the precise details of the study makes it possible for other investigators to replicate or repeat the study

15. Research Process

16. Correlational Research Experimental Research
Research Methods
Descriptive Research
Correlational Research
Experimental Research

17. Naturalistic Observations
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research observes and describes behavior
Examples:
Case Studies
Surveys
Naturalistic Observations

18. Description Case Study
A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.
Advantages: provides insight into specific cases.
Susan Kuklin/ Photo Researchers
Is language uniquely human?
Psychology 7e in Modules

19. Case Study Clinical Study
A clinical study is a form of case study in which the therapist investigates the problems associated with a client.

20. Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording the behavior of animals or people in their natural environment.
Courtesy of Gilda Morelli
Psychology 7e in Modules

21. Survey
A technique for gathering the attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people.
It would be costly and difficult to interview or question every member of a target population. Instead, researchers study a “sample” which is only part of the target population.
OBJECTIVE 6| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of surveys in studying behavior and mental processes, and explain the importance of wording effects and random sampling.
Psychology 7e in Modules

22. Survey Random Sampling
Individuals are selected by chance from the target population.
If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased).
If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

23. Population All the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study. The whole group you want to study. Random Sample A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. Remember…before believing survey findings, think critically: consider the sample!
Psychology 7e in Modules

24. Wisdom of the crowds
watch wisdom of the crowds

25. Public Perceptions of Psychology
What perceptions and misperceptions do people have about the field of psychology?
Survey Questions:
What is psychology?
What do psychologists do?
Where do psychologists work?
What is the difference between a Clinical Psychologist and a Psychiatrist?
How long has psychology been a recognized field of study?
Who is Sigmund Freud?
Who are some other well-known psychologists?
From what sources have you derived your information about psychology?

26. Public Perceptions of Psychology Discussion and Writing
Discuss the surveys, focusing on the following questions:
How do the answers from your participants compare with the answers your class compiled?
Are people generally knowledgeable about psychology?
Are there some common misconceptions or misunderstandings about psychology? Why do you believe this is the case?
How did answers from adults compare with those of your peers?
Where do people tend to get their information? Do you think these sources are useful or reliable?
Did you participants tend to confuse the science of psychology with so-called popular psychology?
Why is it important to study psychology scientifically?

27. Descriptive Methods Summary
Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation describe behaviors.

28. Correlations
Once psychologists have made their observations, they must analyze and interpret them. One method they use is correlation, which is a measure of how closely one thing is related to another. The stronger the correlation between two things, the more closely those two things are related.

29. Correlations
A researcher may simply want to observe people or animals and record these observations in a descriptive study. More often, researchers want to examine the relationship between two sets of observations. For example, students grades and the number of hours they sleep.
Scientists use the word correlation to describe how two sets of data relate to each other.

30. Correlations
Correlation describes a relationship between two things. It does not mean, though, that one things causes the other.
Think about the following…

31. Correlations
Constable Sinclair finds that as ice cream consumption increases, the crime rates increases. As people eat less ice cream, the crime rate decreases. What explains this relationship?

32. Ice cream and Crime
Is it a connection or is there something these two variables have in common? Both ice cream consumption and crime rate are related to a third variable: outside temperature. When it is warm outside, as it is in summer, people enjoy the treat of ice cream and more crimes are committed, because it stays light longer, people are outdoors, and windows are kept open. During the long, dark winter months, people eat less ice cream and fewer crimes are committed.

33. Correlation
It is important to remember that a correlation describes a relationship between two things. It does not mean, though, that one thing causes the other. In some cases, a third factor exists that may account for the positive correlation. Correlations do not identify what causes what. For example, although you might detect a positive correlation between sunny days and your cheerful moods, this does not mean that sunny days cause good moods.

34. Scatterplots
Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)
Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points that are generated by values of two variables. The slope of the points depicts the direction, while the amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship.
Positive correlation - as one variable goes up, the other variable goes up. (Both variables increase together or decrease together)

35. Scatterplots Perfect negative No relationship (0.00)
correlation (-1.00)
No relationship (0.00)
Negative Correlation – one variable increases while the other decreases.
No Correlation – no relationship…neither increase or decrease
The Scatterplot on the left shows a negative correlation, while the one on the right shows no relationship between the two variables.
The stronger the correlation between two things, the more closely those two things are relate.

36. (positive or negative)
Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +
0.37
OBJECTIVE 8| Describe positive and negative correlations and explain how correlational measures can aid the process of prediction.
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Psychology 7e in Modules

37. Limits of Correlation
Correlation describes relationships. It does not, however, reveal cause and effect. It can however predict future behavior. Example: You are conducting a study in your school and discovered a positive correlation between students’ grades and their level of involvement in extracurricular activities. In other word, you found that students who earn high grades in their classes also participate heavily in extracurricular activities. Does this mean that earning high grades causes students to become involved in extracurricular activities or that involvement in extracurricular activities causes students to earn high grades?

38. Experimentation
Why would a researcher choose experimentation over other research methods?
Experimentation enables the investigator to control the situation and to decrease the possibility that unnoticed, outside variables will influence the results.
Like other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychology research. Experiments isolate causes and their effects.
OBJECTIVE 12| Explain how experiments help researchers isolate cause and effect.
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39. The Experiment
Experimental Design

40. Designing an Experiment
In designing experiments, psychologist think in terms of variables, conditions and behaviours that are subject to change. There are two types of variables: independent and dependent. Independent variable – the variable the experimenters change or alter so they can observe its effects. Dependent variable – is the one that changes in relation to the independent variable.

41. Independent Variable
An Independent Variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study. For example, when examining the effects of breast feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding is the independent variable.
OBJECTIVE 14| Explain the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
Psychology 7e in Modules

42. Dependent Variable
A Dependent Variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental process. For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence, intelligence is the dependent variable.

43. Control and Experimental Groups
Experimental Group – the group to which an independent variable is applied Control Group – the group that is treated in the same way as the experimental group except that the experimental treatment (the independent variable) is not applied A control group is necessary in all experiments. By comparing the way control and experimental groups behaved in an experiment the researchers can determine whether the independent variable influences behavior and how it does so.

44. Control and Experimental Groups
What is a Control Group? What is an Experimental Group?

45. An Experiment
1. Dr. Baldwin studies the effects of marijuana on memory she designs an experiment where half the group is receiving THC ( the active ingredient in Marijuana) and the other group gets oregano. The subjects are all given the same list of words to study while they are smoking the substances. Recall is tested 1 hour later.
IV: THC
DV: Memory
Experimental group: those receiving THC
Control group: those receiving oregano

46. An Experiment
2. Dr. McMurphy performs an experiment to learn if room temperature affects the amount of aggression displayed by High School students under crowded conditions in a psychology classroom. What is the independent variable?
a. The amount of aggression
b. Crowding
c. Room temperature
d. The psychology classroom
C Room Temperature

47. Identify the IV and DV
A recent report found that blueberries enhanced the maze running performance of mice.
We are studying whether or not a new vitamin supplement helps boost memory retention.

48. Here is your opportunity to describe an experiment of your own creation:
I would like to investigate the effects of ____________________
on this behavior: _____________________
Half my participants would _______________________________
while the others would ___________________________________
Independent Variable I am manipulating is: ____________________
Dependent Variable or data I am collecting is: _____________________
Experimental Group (that I am most interested in) is: _________________
Control Group (that is for comparison purposes) is: ___________________
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49. Classroom Experiment
On your piece of paper please copy the following: How I Feel: Poor not bad so-so pretty good great Without talking to anyone circle how you are feeling right now and then turn your paper over.

50. Classroom Experiment
On the back of your piece of paper please copy the following: How I Feel Now: Poor not bad so-so pretty good great Without talking to anyone circle how you are feeling right.

51. Classroom Experiment Pull out your wrapper.
If you had a wrapper that has Halls written in yellow please put the word “YELLOW” on your paper.
If you had a wrapper that has Halls written in gray please put the word “GRAY” on your paper.
Now we will collect our data…

52. Experimental Control
Random Assignment: The use of chance to assign subjects to experimental and control groups.
(For example, how do we know that the people in one group aren’t more intelligent than those in the other group?)
Single Blind Procedure: Experimental procedure in which only the research staff are aware of whether subjects are in the experimental group or the control group however the participants are unaware.
Double Blind Procedure: Experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are “blind” or unaware of whether subjects are in the experimental group or the control group. This keeps researchers from unconsciously influencing subjects.
OBJECTIVE 13| Explain why random assignment and double-blind procedure build confidence in research findings.
Psychology 7e in Modules

53. Placebo
Placebo is an inert substance having no affect on the body. Often called a sugar pill. Placebo effect happens when the person believes that the pill has an affect and behaves as if it has an affect. Self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that prompts people to act in ways that make the prediction come true.

54. Videos
placebo effect Strange powers of the placebo effect placebo video 2 Stuff they don’t want you to know

55. Expectations influence people
Self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that prompts people to act in ways that make the prediction come true.
Example: In an experiment a teacher was told that his or her students had unusually high or low ability in math. Students who were labeled high ability improved much more in math scores than those in low-ability classes. Yet, initially, all of the students were of equal ability. WHY did this happen?
Apparently, the teacher subtly communicated her expectations to the students. Most likely, she did this through tone of voice, body language, and by giving encouragement or criticism. Her “hints” in turn, created a self-fulfilling prophecy that affected the students.
Double blind procedure helps to eliminate a self-fulfilling prophecy!
(This keeps researchers from unconsciously influencing subjects.)

56. Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics describes a set of data. Example: Researching kinds of pets Massey students have. Creating a frequency distribution would tell you how many students had dogs, cats, zebras etc. Graphing your findings is often helpful. Researchers rely on statistics to determine whether their results support their hypotheses. They also use stats to determine whether their findings are statistically significant. If a finding is statistically significant, it means that the results are not very likely to have occurred by chance.

57. Measures of Central Tendency
The next step once the data is gathered is to summarize the data using some measure of central tendency, a single score that represents a whole set of scores. Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution. Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores that were added together. Median: The middle score in a rank-ordered distribution.
OBJECTIVE 17| Describe three measures of central tendency and tell which is most affected by extreme scores.
Psychology 7e in Modules

58. Measures of Central Tendency
What is the median of the following distribution: 6,2,9,4,7,3,2? 2,2,3,4,6,7,9 What is the mode of the same distribution: 6,2,9,4,7,3,2? What is the mean of the same distribution: 6,2,9,4,7,3,2? (Sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores) 4.7

59. Measures of Central Tendency
Oops, we forgot to add a number…88..in our total distribution!
6,2,9,4,7,3,2,88
Will this effect the median, mode or mean the most?

60. Measures of Central Tendency
What is the median of the following distribution: 6,2,9,4,7,3,2,88?
2,2,3,4,6,7,9
2,2,3,4,6,7,9,88 = 5
What is the mode of the same distribution: 6,2,9,4,7,3,2,88?
2,2,3,4,6,7,9,88 =same answer
What is the mean of the same distribution: 6,2,9,4,7,3,2, 88?
(Sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores)
4.7
15.1

61. Measures of Central Tendency
A Skewed Distribution

62. Measures of Variation
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.
OBJECTIVE 18| Explain two measures of variation.
Psychology 7e in Modules

63. Descriptive Stats
Statistical Analysis

64. Ethics in Research
Ethics are important in all research on both humans and animals. When something is considered ethical, it means that it is considered morally right. Many hypotheses cannot be tested experimentally because they are unethical or immoral.

65. Human Research
: source

66. Human Research
Research involving human subjects must follow these guidelines:
Informed consent: participants must know that they are involved in research and be told about any potential risks.
Coercion: participation must be voluntary. No one can be forced to participate and participants can withdraw at any time from the study.

67. Anonymity/Confidentiality: Participants’ privacy must be protected
Anonymity/Confidentiality: Participants’ privacy must be protected. The researcher must never reveal their identities.
Risk: Participants cannot be placed in any significant mental or physical risk.
Debriefing: Participants must be told the purpose of the study and provided with ways to contact the researchers about the study results.

68. Did this experiment follow ethical guidelines?
Stanley Milgram Experiment

69. Animal Research “Quit school? Quit school!
:source
“Quit school? Quit school!
You wanna end up like your father? A career lab rat?”

70. Animal Research
Research involving animals must follow these guidelines:
Clear scientific purpose: The research must answer a specific, important scientific question. Animals are chosen because they are best-suited.
Humane treatment: The animals used in the research must be cared for and housed in a humane way.

71. Legal possession of animals: The animals used in research must be purchased from legal companies. If wild animals are used they must be trapped in a humane manner.
Minimum suffering: The experimental procedures must be designed to use the least amount of suffering possible.

72. Why use animals in research?
Biological and behavioral similarities between animals and humans therefore we can learn things that apply to humans
Lifespan of most animals is shorter than that of humans, We can study genetic effects over generations much faster in animals than with humans
More control over experiments with animals than with humans

73. Source :Blair-Broeker/Ernst, Thinking About Psychology

74. Below is a comparison of different research methods.

75. Choose a Study What was the purpose of the study?
Is the study Descriptive, Correlational or Experimental?
What were the findings in this study?
What was the “population” of the study?
Who (and/or how many) was included in the sample?
What conclusions might someone have after reading about this study?
What are some questions you have about this study?