1. Processes and Techniques
Two dimensional art processes and techniques are those created on a flat plane.
They have height and width, but not significant depth.
These processes include drawing, printmaking, painting, photography and some mixed media

2. Drawing Arguably the most basic of art processes
Common media are pencil, pen and ink, charcoal, crayon, and felt tip pen
Early artists (cave painters) used rock walls
Most artists use some kind of paper
Smooth (hot press) or rough (cold press)
Paper can be any color in addition to white
Tools can be black, white, or colored

3. Drawing Based primarily on the use of line
Lines created by drawing media can vary dramatically in quality
Hard pencils make thin, light lines
Soft pencils make thicker lines that vary in value from light to very dark
Charcoal is so soft that the color of the paper used will show through in places where the strokes are applied lightly

4. Drawing
Using pencils or charcoal, a change in pressure will result in a change in value
More pressure creates darker value
Less pressure creates lighter value
Shading can be used to change value
Hatching and crosshatching are techniques used to shade objects
Hatching-lines placed closely side by side
Cross-hatching-lines crisscrossed
Stippling-dots that create a pattern
Distance and size of dots determine how dark the shading will be

7. Drawing
Ink can be thinned to create a wash of lighter value in which the paper shows through to lighted the effect
Undiluted ink is opaque and completely covers the underlying paper

8. Drawing
Color may be introduced with the use of pastels (both soft or oil) or colored pencils
Colored pastels became popular in the 1700s
Popular for portraiture
Drawback is that soft pastels are fragile and the drawing must be sprayed with a fixative to reduce the risk of smearing
Color pencils are more durable than pastel, and like pastels, can be layered to create blended color and sharpened to add delicate detail

9. Drawing

10. Drawing

11. Printmaking
Refers to a group of mechanically aided two-dimensional processes that permit the production of multiple original artworks
Principal printmaking processes: relief prints, intaglio, lithographs, and screen prints
All types use some sort of printing plate (a matrix) on which an image is created
Ink is applied to the plate and the image is transferred to paper or another material

12. Printmaking
Relief-artist cuts away parts from the surface of the plate
Matrix may be made of wood, linoleum, or synthetic material
Woodcarving knives and gouges cut the surface
The remaining parts stand out in relief
Relief sections may range from thin lines to broad field that, when inked, produce the image
Wherever the plate is removed, no ink touches the surface and the original color of the paper remains
Ink is rolled on by a brayer
Paper is place over the inked plate
Plate and paper are put into a press to force the ink onto the paper

13. Printmaking Intaglio-works in the opposite manner from relief
Lines are incised on a wood or soft metal plate
Line is an essential element in this process
Carving tools are used to cut lines into the surface of the plate in a process called engraving
In etching, a design is incised through a layer of wax or varnish applied to the surface of a metal plate
After incising, the plate is immersed in acid which etches or eats away the exposed metal
The longer the time in the acid, the deeper the grooves
After cleaning, the ink is forced into the etched areas
Surface is wiped off and passed through a heavy press
Paper is forced into the etched, inked areas and ink transfers to the paper
This process causes the inked areas to rise above the surface of the paper giving it a degree of dimension

14. Sudarium (Veil) of St. Veronica, Albrecht Durer, ca. 1513, Engraving

15. Printmaking
Lithography - Process in which the image is drawn with a waxy pencil or crayon directly onto a plate which can be made of stone, zinc, or aluminum
Greasy image hardens and plate is saturated with water
Ink is applied but adheres only to the greasy image since oil resists water
Image is transferred onto the paper when the plate is moved through a press
Does not require professional training. Anyone can draw something on the plate
Screen prints are familiar since this is the process used to print most T-shirts
Silkscreen – a photo or other image is transferred or adhered to a silk or synthetic fabric stretched onto a frame
Image is a sort of stencil, blocking out areas of fabric
When ink is forged through the screen using a squeegee, those areas NOT blocked by stenciling are transferred to fabric beneath

16. printmaking Lithography
This simplified diagram shows the principle of offset lithography using one ink. Modern lithographed stamps normally use process color (multiple inks).
A design is imprinted on a smooth surface.
A water-base chemical fills the surface around the design.
Ink is applied; since it contains oil, it sticks only to the design.
A rubber blanket fastened to a cylinder picks up the ink.
The blanket transfers—or offsets—the ink to paper.
The inked image is complete.
Lithography

17. Painting Painting encompasses a wide variety of media and techniques
Paint is usually composed of three different materials: pigments, binders, and solvents
Pigments are finely ground materials that may be natural or synthetic
Natural pigments include clay, gemstones, minerals, as well as plant materials that make color when powdered
Powdered pigments are mixed with a binder that holds the grains of pigment together and allows the paint to adhere to a surface
Egg yolks, linseed oil, and wax can all be used as binders
A solvent such as water or oil can be added to change the consistency of the paint or alter its drying time

18. painting
As with drawing, painters can apply the media to a variety of surfaces such as boards, paper, canvas, plaster walls, or metal
Paint can be applied with many different tools including brushes, fingers, sticks, palette knives and anything else that an artist imagines will make the desired kind of effect
One specialized technique used throughout history is the fresco
Used to paint on walls or ceilings
Two kinds of fresco painting
True or buon fresco-paint applied to wet plaster that dries to become part of the wall
Fresco secco is applied to dry plaster that “floats” on the surface of the wall
Frescoes have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and in many medieval and Renaissance churches
Diego Rivera, famous Mexican muralist of the early twentieth century, used this technique for his murals in Mexico and the United States

19. Creation of Adam, Vatican Museums,
Frescoes in Pompeii, Italy
Creation of Adam, Vatican Museums,
Rome, Italy

20. Oil and Tempera on plaster
The Last Supper, is in the refectory of the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, begun in 1495 and finished in
Painted in an experimental medium that proved to be a disaster, the mural began to disintegrate during Leonardo's own lifetime
Oil and Tempera on plaster

21. Painting
Oil painting usually comes to mind when we think about painting
Oil was not widely used until the 1400s
Prior to that Tempera was the most commonly used paint
Tempera is water-based which uses egg as a binder
Limitations to it are that it dries quickly and cannot be blended once applied to a surface
It has a narrow tonal range-colors are either light or dark
Many ancient tempera paintings still retain their clear and brilliant color
The Annunciation, tempera on wood by Simone Martini, 1333 (saints on either side of the central panel by Lippo Memmi); in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence.

22. Painting Oil paints are much more versatile than tempera
Can be easily mixed, thinned to build up layers of delicate glazes which are thin or semi-transparent layers applied over another color to alter it slightly
Translucency of glazes permits a crimson layer to shine through a yellow layer on top to create brilliant, luminous effects.
Oil can be applied thickly or in heavy lumps to make an impasto surface
Slow drying time allows an artist to work on an oil painting over a long period of time-days or even weeks
Maxfield Parrish - Morning 1922

23. Painting
In ancient Egypt, grave markers were painted with wax-based paints called encaustic
Colored molten wax is fused with the surface via the application of hot irons
Egyptian markers have survived for 5,000 years which indicates the durability of the medium
Some painters today have returned to this ancient, traditional process
Encaustic funeral portraits, CE, Faiyum, Egypt

24. Painting
Gouache is a water-based opaque paint that is similar to, but of higher quality, than that of school-quality tempera
It’s a good medium for creating bright colors and meticulous details

25. Painting Water color is the most common water- based paint
It’s transparent
White of the paper is a major factor in watercolor
White paint rarely used
To make tints, water is added
Lightest colors are applied first, then darker colors are added working from background to foreground and from broad areas to detail
Watercolor is not an easy medium-mistakes are difficult to correct so planning is key

26. Painting Acrylic paint is a recent development
Made from synthetic materials, plastics and polymers
Developed after WWII
Versatile
Do not require slow, careful build-up of layers with long drying times like oil paint
Not able to achieve the subtlety of oil
Great for artists with allergies to oil paint and turpentine

27. Photography Developed during the mid-nineteenth century
Enormous impact on art
Painters felt pressured to compete with the camera by achieving a higher degree of realism
Initially not considered an art form
Achieved a legitimacy within the art world and grown in the 20th and 21st centuries
Film an video are also used as art forms

28. Sculpture Created in four basic ways
Carving
Modeling
Casting
Construction
We typically think of sculpture as being freestanding like Venus de Milo or Michelangelo’s Pieta
Freestanding sculpture is meant to be seen in the round-from every angle

29. Roman Relief Sculpture Battle Scene with Amazon Warriors
Reliefs are sculptures attached to surfaces such as doors, sarcophagi, altars or church walls
They may be carved into the stone or wood of the structure itself or cast of metal and fixed to the surface of the structure
High-relief projects significantly from the surface
Low-relief (bas-relief) projects only slightly
Roman Relief Sculpture Battle Scene with Amazon Warriors

30. Pennington County, South Dakota
Sculpture
Carving is a subtractive process in which some of the original material is removed
Stone or wood sculpture can be made by chiseling a gouging the material away with chisels, hammers, and files to bring the imagined form into physical existence
The scale can range from miniature figures to monumental forms carved on rock.
Mt. Rushmore,
Pennington County, South Dakota

31. Sculpture Modeling is an additive process
Soft, workable material like clay, wax, plaster, or papier-mâché is formed by hand
Amounts can be added to the surface
Surface can be shaped or decorated by hand or with simple tools

32. Sculpture Cast form Original form is encased in plaster
When the plaster hardens it is removed from the original form and retained for use as a mold
Mold can be filled and used to create one or more casts of the original object
Sculptures may be cast in plaster, metal, and synthetic materials like plastic or polyester resins

33. Sculpture Some sculpture is constructed using a variety of methods
Metal can be welded from sheet metal or bent from wire
Some artists use paper, board, or wood that is cut and glued, nailed or joined together by some other means and possible painted
Sometimes found objects are combined to create a new sculpture
Some can move or have moving parts such as mobiles moved by wind or motors, pulleys, ropes, pumps, or other mechanical means
Alexander Calder ( )
National Gallery of Art, East Building.
76 feet long.
Aluminum, honeycomb panels, hollow aluminum tubes, steel

34. Environmental Art/Earthworks
New category that emerged in the 1960s
Usually large in scale
Constructed on-site
Typically not permanent
Occupies space that may be outside the museum in the natural worl or inside a gallery or museum
It redefines the space in which it is installed
Often the viewer is drawn into and involved with the artwork
Often, an essential part of the work is the process of collaborating with the community and governmental agencies to gain approval for proposed work
Photographs provide long-lasting documentation of projects designed to be fleeting in nature

35. Environmental Art/Earthworks
Christo, Surrounded Islands, Florida,
Robert Smithson,
Spiral Jetty, Great Salt Lake, Utah

36. Environmental Art/Earthworks
Patrick Dougherty's sapling sculpture
"Uff Da Palace" at the Minnesota Landscape Arboretum
Andy Goldsworthy
Snow Art

37. Still-Life with Chair-Caning
Mixed Media
Name given to a category of works in which the artist uses several different media sometimes in conjunction with found materials such as fabric, rope, broken dishes, newspaper or children’s toys
Collage – artists combine various materials such as photos, papers, theatre tickets and anything else that can be adhered to a surface
Materials are selected for their texture, color, or any aesthetic properties for their symbolic meaning
Picasso and Georges Braque are credited with introducing this medium around 1912
Picasso
Still-Life with Chair-Caning
ca 1912

38. Performance
Art in which the artist engages in some kind of performance sometimes involving the viewers
Lacks permanence
Videos or photos of the performance may be the only remaining documentation of the event
Performances cannot be sold as objects
Regarded as an escape from the increasing commercialization of art
New ideas, new materials, new processes present themselves to the artists
Challenge us to reconsider our own conceptions and definitions of the term “art”

39. Craft and Folk Art
Craft, folk and popular art are debated terms applied to a variety of art forms across cultures
Usually referred to art forms that are largely utilitarian
People have sought to make the objects they use more distinctive or beautiful
Pottery, jewelry, fibers, and glass and wooden objects have come to be regarded as art forms

40. Pottery Medium based upon the use of natural materials
Clay, dug from the ground, is the essential material
Many types of pots can be built using hands and simple tools
Basic pot can be formed from a ball of clay by punching the thumb into the center of the ball and pinching the clay between the thumb and fingers.
Clay can also be rolled into coils
Slab-built pots are made by rolling out clay and cutting carefully measure pieces
They are assembled by applying liquid clay called slip, to the edges that are to be joined.

41. Pottery
The potter’s wheel was used in many ancient culture and continues to be used today
Using the wheel, the potter forms the basic shapes of the pot by manipulating the shape as it turns on the wheel
When the wheel is used, the pots are described as being “thrown”
Throwing allows for thin-walled pots in a variety of shapes

42. Pottery
Once the clay form has air-dried, the kiln, a specialized oven is loaded and fired
All remaining moisture is driven out of the clay and a chemical change takes place
Pots harden permanently
Then, glazes made of clay and minerals that provide color may be applied to the surface of the post and they are fired again
Glazes melt, forming a glassy, waterproof surface
The surface can also be decorated with applied clay designs or decorations incised or carved into the piece

43. Fiber, Glass, Wood Fiber arts include woven and nonwoven materials
Some techniques use a loom while others rely on braiding, knitting, or crochet
Quilting is another craft form
Archeological evidence indicates that glass was first made in the Middle East in the third millennium BCE
Glass is most often made of silica derived from sand, flint, or quarts combined with other raw materials
Minerals add color
Development of glassblowing enabled the formation of vessels like drinking glasses and perfume bottles
Stained glass became a dominant art form in the medieval period and was used to create dramatic windows in cathedrals
By the end of the 19th century, stained glass had become popular for lampshades and windows in residential homes

45. Lamp and stained glass window
Louis Comfort Tiffany
Late 19th/early 20th c.