1. Social Research Methods
Alan Bryman
Social Research Methods
Chapter 12: Structured observation
Slides authored by Tom Owens

2. What is structured observation?
A method of systematically observing people’s behaviour
By grouping behaviour into categories
Direct observation, not reports or inference, make it an alternative to survey methods
Aggregates and compares behaviour of everyone in the sample
Uses a cross-sectional research design
Pages 2

3. Problems with survey research
Respondents interpret different meanings from questions
Omission of key terms when reading questions
Reliance on people’s memories of their behaviour
Social desirability effect
Threatening questions - invalid answers
Interviewer bias
Gap between stated and actual behaviour
Tips and skills
Page 271 3

4. Types of observation research
Structured/systematic observation
Participant observation (qualitative)
Non-participant observation
Unstructured observation (inductive)
Simple/contrived observation - a form of participant observation where the situation is left as is or is changed (Webb et al.1966)
Key concept 12.2
Page 273 4

5. The observation schedule
Must have a clear focus and be easy to use
Categories must be inclusive (cover all options) and mutually exclusive
It must be easy to operate
Specifies categories of behaviour to be observed and how to allocate behaviour to a category
Clear guidelines needed so that observers can distinguish between behaviour categories
A pilot study is useful to iron out any problems
Pages 5

6. Flanders (1970) Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC)
Figure 12.1
Page 274

7. Strategies for observing behaviour
Record incidents, events and interventions
Observe for short periods of time, repeatedly
Observe for long periods of time, continuously
e.g. Jenkins et al (1975): ‘the observation hour’
Time sampling
Record whatever is happening every x minutes
e.g. ORACLE study (Galton et al, 1980)
Pages 7

8. Sampling in structured observation
Sampling people
- Random sample of individuals to observe
Sampling time periods
- Observe same individual(s) at different, randomly selected times
Non-probability samples
- Cannot use a probability sample if there is no sampling frame, thus reduced external validity
Limited external validity, in any case
Pages 8

9. Forms of sampling Ad libitum sampling
Record whatever is happening at the time
Focal sampling (most common form)
Observe a specific individual for a set period of time
Scan sampling
Record behaviour of everyone in the group at regular time intervals
Behaviour sampling
Observe whole group to see who was involved in a particular behaviour
Martin and Bateson, 1986
Pages 279 9

10. Issues of reliability and validity
Inter-observer consistency (measured by Cohen’s kappa)
Intra-observer consistency (lapses of attention)
Measurement validity
Does schedule measure underlying concept?
Implementation of schedule
Presence of observer - reactive effect
Pages 10

11. What is the reactive effect?
Webb et al. (1966) wrote about the ‘reactive measurement effect’, in which the research subject knows s/he is participating in research, thus invalidating the data:
• The guinea pig effect (awareness of being tested)
• Role selection (participants adopt a particular kind of role)
• Measurement as a change agent (the very fact of a researcher being present)
• Response sets (mostly relates to survey research when the respondent replies to a set of questions in a consistent but clearly inappropriate manner).
Reactive effects are likely to occur in any research in which participants know they are the focus of investigation.
Key concept 12.4
Pages 281, 282 11

12. Field stimulations
Salancik (1979) used ‘field stimulation’ to describe a form of observation in which the researcher directly intervenes in a setting and observes the results ( a form of contrived, unobtrusive observation).
Quantification of the outcomes is the desired goal.
Pages 282 12

13. A field stimulation example:
Daniel’s (1968) study of racial discrimination
Sixty ads for accommodation to let were selected from a number of regions.
Each landlord was approached by each of the following: a black West Indian; a white Hungarian; and a white Englishman.
The applicants had identical characteristics, just different ethnicity.
Pages 283

14. …..and the quantification of the outcomes
Table 12.1
Page 283

15. Criticisms of structured observation
Imposes an irrelevant framework on the social setting
Neglects the meanings and intentions behind behaviour (motives are inferred but not investigated)
Neglects the social context of behaviour
Generates fragmented data - difficult to see the wider picture
Pages 283, 284 15

16. On the other hand...
It is more accurate than interviews and questionnaires
see what people really do, not what they say they do
It is a useful accompaniment to other methods
study behaviour, attitudes and social context
Pages 284 16