1. Garrett Group X-Ray Safety Training
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2. Instructions
Navigate through the information on these slides at your own pace
You can go forwards or backwards as many times as you like
There are 51 slides and 5 parts to this self-study module
You will be quizzed on the material at the conclusion of this module

3. Objectives Of CSUN’s Radiation Safety Program
To maintain regulatory compliance
To develop safe working practices for those working with X-rays
To maintain a safe working environment for the public and those working with X-rays
To provide information about radiation safety

4. Objectives Of This Training Module
Learn about the properties of X-rays and their effects on biological systems
Understand safe working practices for using analytical X-ray units
Recognize regulations and requirements set down by California State University, Northridge, the California Code of Regulations (CCR) and the federal Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)

5. Properties of Radiation
Self Study Module
Part 1

6. What Is Radiation? Radiation is energy in transit
Particle radiation is subatomic particles with mass (protons, neutrons, electrons, alpha or beta particles)
Electromagnetic radiation is a wave without mass or charge that has energy inversely proportional to its wavelength

7. What Is Electromagnetic Radiation?
Some electromagnetic radiation has enough energy to ionize (to create ions) matter
This training focuses on X-rays but the same principles apply to all ionizing radiation
Non-ionizing
Ionizing

8. What Are X-Rays?
X-rays travel large distances through vacuum, air or other materials
They are strongly attenuated by shielding (dense materials such as lead, water or concrete)
The distance they travel depends on their energy and the shielding material
X-ray Transmission Through 100 μm Thick Film
Polypropylene
Silica (Glass) ↑
Maximum energy of PHI XPS system = 1500 eV

9. Shielding Ionizing Radiation Particle Paraffin Water Concrete Paper
Skin
Plexiglass
(PMMA)
Lead α β γ X n

10. How Are X-rays Made?
High energy electrons from a heated filament bombard Mg or Al anode at potential HV (up to 15 kV)
Current between filament and anode is the emission current Iem
X-ray intensity is proportional to HV × Iem ↑
PHI XPS system produces soft X-rays at eV (Mg) or eV (Al)

11. ↑ Warning symbol for ionizing radiation
How Are X-rays Made?
No X-rays are produced when HV = 0 or Iem = 0
There is no X-ray danger when the unit is not powered
Do not leave the unit on for longer than necessary
↑ Warning symbol for ionizing radiation

12. Biological Effects and Dose Limits
Self Study Module
Part 2

13. Biological Effects
Radiation can induce damage in biological systems in two main ways:
Direct exposure causing DNA damage
Indirect exposure causing creation of free radicals inside the cell

14. Direct DNA Damage
DNA damage by carcinogens (cancer causing substances) or radiation occurs 10,000 times a day
Cells have repair mechanisms that are not perfect; errors may lead to cancerous cells

15. Indirect Cell Damage
Most radiation impacts water molecules in our cells, creating highly reactive radicals
Most common radicals are H· and OH·
Radicals react with cell components to create damage or carcinogens

16. Absorbed and Effective Dose
Absorbed dose measures the amount of energy deposited per unit mass of tissue
Effective dose also takes into account type and energy of radiation and type of tissue so is more useful than absorbed dose
Absorbed Dose
Effective Dose
US Unit
Rad
Rem
SI Unit
Gray (Gy)
Sievert (Sv) ↑
1 Gy = 100 rad ↑
1 Sv = 100 rem

17. Radiation Effective Dose
Exposure
Effective Dose
Eating a banana
10 μrem
Flying from LA to NY
4 mrem
Dental X-ray
10 mrem
Annual contribution from food and water
30 mrem
Abdominal X-ray
100 mrem
Normal annual dose
0.4 rem
CT scan
1 rem
Lowest annual effective dose positively linked to cancer
10 rem
To put effective doses into perspective, many common activities contribute effective doses of radiation

18. Acute Biological Effects
Acute Effects
Associated with one-time, high dose (>100 rem) events
Symptoms appear quickly (days to weeks)
Virtually impossible with PHI XPS X-ray unit
Can cause radiation burns (obvious tissue damage)
Can cause radiation sickness (fever, nausea, headache, skin changes, organ damage)
Long-term acute effects include leukemia, cancer, life shortening, genetic effects and embryonic effects
The principle delayed effect is an increased risk of cancer

19. Symptoms of Acute Biological Effects
Acute Whole-Body Exposure (In a Few Hours)
Effective Dose
Blood cell changes
25-50 rem
Nausea, diarrhea
100 rem
Hair loss
250 rem
Erythema (skin blushing, reddening)
300 rem
Sterility, death (if no treatment) (LD50)
rem
Gastrointestinal damage (LD100) (no recovery expected)
1000 rem
Central nervous system damage (LD100) (no recovery expected)
2000 rem

20. Chronic Biological Effects
Chronic Effects
Associated with multiple, low dose events
Symptoms appear slowly (years)
More common with poor safety practices
Can cause no immediate or obvious symptoms
Can cause increased probability of cancer, DNA damage, fertility changes, damage to developing fetus
Long-term chronic effects include carcinogenesis, life shortening, and cataract formation
The principle delayed effect is an increased risk of cancer

21. Chronic Biological Effects
Radiation exposure in-utero can result in spontaneous abortion, congenital abnormalities, impairment of growth and mental functions, increased incidences of leukemia
If you are pregnant you should notify the university using the prenatal notification form (form 205) and your Primary Responsible Operator (Simon Garrett)
Effective dose limits are reduced for pregnant women to 10% normal dose (0.5 rem/9 months or 50 mrem/month)

22. Accidental Overexposure
If you suspect you or someone else has received accidental X-ray overexposure you should
Seek immediate medical attention if you experience ANY symptoms of acute radiation exposure
Power down the X-ray machine
Do not operate it again until instructed to do so
Notify the Primary Responsible Operator (Simon Garrett) as soon as possible
Notify the Radiation Safety Officer (Anthony Pepe) as soon as possible

23. Analytical X-ray Units
Self Study Module
Part 3

24. Analytical X-ray Devices: Primary Beam
The primary beam is the useful beam passing through an aperture in the source housing
Irradiated area for PHI XPS is about 1 cm2
Exposure can be >400,000 rad/hour
Housing
Primary beam
Air Vacuum

25. Scatter and Leakage
Scattered radiation occurs from interactions of primary beam with materials
Leakage radiation escapes the X-ray source housing (but is not the primary beam)
Both sources may lead to chronic exposure

26. Closed Beam Systems
A cabinet/enclosure provides shielding and reduced access for personnel via doors, leaded glass windows and interlocks around the source
An interlock blocks or turns off the X-rays if an unsafe operation is performed
Closed beam systems have no beam travelling outside the cabinet so no body part can enter the beam
Closed beam X-ray units are the safest
The PHI XPS source is enclosed and closed beam

27. Open Beam Systems
Open beam systems have a beam travelling outside the cabinet, usually through air, so body parts can enter the beam
Open beam X-ray units present the greatest accidental exposure
Portable X-ray units may direct an open beam in any direction
Portable X-ray units present great danger for accidental exposure

28. Safety Features
Interlocks – A series of switches that must be all closed for the X-ray beam to be generated
Because the PHI XPS source is enclosed and closed beam, accidental exposure risk is very low and so there are no safety interlocks
Standard operating procedures – A list of step-by-step instructions relating to normal operation of the X-ray beam
These must be provided near the unit

29. Safety Features
Shutter - Blocks the beam unless deliberately opened, mechanically or electronically
Beam stop - Dense material to block the primary beam at the end of its useful path
Failsafe - Device that prevents X-ray beam generation in the event of a safety device (interlock) failure
Collimator - A device to make the beam focused or parallel, reducing beam striking unwanted area
Because the PHI XPS system is enclosed and closed beam it has none of these features

30. Analytical X-ray Unit Safety
Self Study Module
Part 4

31. The Concept of ALARA
The risk of adverse health effects can be decreased by decreasing your dose
The goal is not only to remain below the exposure limits, but to keep it As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA) (not necessarily zero)
ALARA is required by law
There are several general practices that will help you to keep your dose ALARA – time, distance, shielding

32. ALARA Reduce time Increase distance Increase shielding
Less time spent near
source:
less radiation received.
Greater distance from source:
less radiation received
Behind shielding from source: less radiation received.
Reduce
time
Increase
distance
Increase
shielding

33. Basic Safety Practices
Never bypass a safety device (interlock, shutter, beam stop, collimator) without prior approval of the Primary Responsible Operator (PRO), Simon Garrett
These are to reduce chance of accidental exposure
If a safety device is bypassed add a prominent sign to the instrument SAFETY DEVICE NOT WORKING
Never operate the instrument in any non-standard way without consulting the PRO
Never allow unauthorized/untrained persons to operate the X-ray unit

34. Basic Safety Practices
Never remove covers, enclosures, shutters, beam stops or collimators without ensuring the X-ray unit is powered off
Disconnect main power; do not rely on switches/interlocks
Never place a body part in the primary beam
Never use your hand to hold a sample in the beam
Never operate if cables, wires, hoses are damaged
Always control access to the instrument
Always follow the principle of ALARA

35. Radiation Monitoring Radiation exposure is cumulative
Monitoring devices (dosimeters) are required if a worker is likely to be exposed to 10% normal annual effective dose
Film badges, film rings, electronic monitors
The PHI XPS system does not produce enough scattered/leakage radiation to require dosimeters ↑
Film Badge Dosimeter
Ring Dosimeter ↓

36. Dosimeters
Dosimeters measure a person’s total radiation exposure over some relatively long period of time but they offer no radiation protection
Dosimeters should
Be worn whenever the worker is using the X-ray machine
Be stored in a location away from X-ray exposure
Be turned in periodically for readout
Dosimeters should not
Be shared
Removed from campus
Be modified, repaired or taken apart

37. Radiation Monitoring
Radiation can be monitored in real time using a calibrated radiation survey meter (Geiger-Muller tube, ion chamber or solid state)
Meters are available from CSUN Environmental Health and Safety (EH&S) ↑
Solid State Survey Meter
Geiger-Muller Tube Detector ↓

38. Radiation Monitoring
The X-ray generator must be inspected and the radiation measured:
When first installed
When significant equipment modifications are made
For example if the enclosure is modified or the source is moved
When significant experiment modifications are made
For example if experiments will increase the chances of scattered radiation
Periodically

39. Regulations
Self Study Module
Part 5

40. Regulations
Regulatory agencies have set effective dose limits for those working with radiation-producing devices
These indicate an upper limit for how much radiation a worker is allowed to be exposed to within a certain period
An individual who is exposed to the maximum allowable dose of radiation, is still well below the onset of serious health effects!
X-ray limits are set forth by the NRC and California Department of Health (in the California Code of Regulations)

41. Maximum Annual Effective Dose
Eyes
15 rem
Extremities
(below knees and elbows)
50 rem
Internal organs
Total Effective Dose
(whole body)
5 rem
Skin

42. Maximum Annual Effective Dose
Category
Effective Dose
Combined whole body
5 rem/year
Skin of whole body
50 rem/year
Hands
Eyes
15 rem/year
Worker under age 18
10% of above limits
Pregnant woman
0.5 rem/9 months or 50 mrem/month
U.S. NRC (10 CFR 20) and California (17 CCR) standards

43. Responsibilities
X-ray source
It is the responsibility of the operator to maintain an ALARA dose for themselves and others
An operating X-ray machine may only be left unattended when the room is locked

44. Signage
CAUTION X-RAY RADIATION must be posted near each analytical X-ray machine
Each laboratory will also contain names/telephone numbers of two emergency contacts
CAUTION RADIATION - THIS EQUIPMENT PRODUCES RADIATION WHEN ENERGIZED label must be placed near the energizing switch
CAUTION - HIGH-INTENSITY X-RAY BEAM label will be placed in the area adjacent to each tube not provided with an interlock

45. Enforcement
Penalties for violating safety rules and regulations, university, state or federal, include:
Retraining
Loss of access to X-ray unit, enforced by a civil injunction or court order
Civil penalties, for willful violation
Criminal penalties, for willful violation

46. Security Only authorized and approved users may use an X-ray unit
Authorized and approved users should be trained in general radiation safety and the use of specific X-ray units by the Primary Responsible Operator(PRO)
The PRO should be notified immediately in the event of unauthorized use

47. Contacts
The Primary Responsible Operator (PRO) for the PHI XPS system is Dr. Simon Garrett
(818) (campus) or (810) (cell)
The CSUN Radiation Safety Officer is Anthony Pepe at Environmental Health and Safety (EH&S)
(818) (campus)

48. Contacts
The Radiation Safety Officer (Anthony Pepe) at Environmental Health and Safety (EH&S) is responsible for maintaining any legal authorization to operate any CSUN X-ray machine
EH&S will coordinate any required inspection and monitoring of the X-ray producing unit
Contact EH&S if:
There is a known or suspected overexposure event
The equipment is to be moved or modified

49. Documents and Forms
Environmental Health and Safety (EH&S) maintains relevant documents and forms associated with radiation safety
Radiation safety manual
Radiation terms and definitions
Radiation safety: a workers guide
Application for the use of ionizing radiation (form 101)
Prenatal notification (form 205)
Refresher training record (form 207)

50. Documents and Forms
The California Code of Regulations (CCR), Title 17 section 30255(b)(2) requires that the following documents are available for review and reference:
CCR, Title 17
The following forms/notices/documents should be posted in any laboratory where X-ray machines operate
Guidelines for the use of X-ray producing machines (form 301)
Instructions for standard operating procedures
Notice to Employee document

51. End of Self-study Module
This completes the self-study module
You must now take a 50-question X-ray safety training quiz and achieve a score of 80% or better to satisfy the general radiation safety portion of becoming an authorized and approved X-ray user for the PHI XPS system
You will also be required to undergo one-on-one training in operating the X-ray unit
Print out the quiz, complete it and return it to Simon Garrett within 14 days