Socioemotional Development in Late Adulthood and the End of Life

Socioemotional Development in Late Adulthood and the End of Life
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
Figure 18.1: Challenges of Aging as Expected and Experienced by Older Adults LO Compare the roles of self-concept, reminiscence, and life review in developing a sense of ego integrity. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

The Sense of Self A more multifaceted and comprehensive sense of self enables older adults to accept their weaknesses and compensate by focusing on their strengths. Older adults tend to express more positive than negative self-evaluations well into old age. LO Compare the roles of self-concept, reminiscence, and life review in developing a sense of ego integrity. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Subjective Age Adults older than 25 tend to have younger subjective ages, and the discrepancy between subjective and chronological age increases over the adult years. LO Compare the roles of self-concept, reminiscence, and life review in developing a sense of ego integrity. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Figure 18.3: When Does Old Age Begin?
LO Compare the roles of self-concept, reminiscence, and life review in developing a sense of ego integrity. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Reminiscence and Life Review
The vocal or silent recall of events in a person’s life. Recalling past experience and acquired knowledge and sharing it with young people is rewarding, life enriching, and positively associated with well-being. Life review Reflecting on past experiences and contemplating the meaning of those experiences and their role in shaping one’s life. LO Compare the roles of self-concept, reminiscence, and life review in developing a sense of ego integrity. Life review permits greater self-understanding and helps older adults assign meaning to their lives (Butler, 1974; Erikson, 1982). Specifically, life review can help elders adapt to and accept the triumphs and disappointments of their lives, become more tolerant and accepting of others, become free of the feeling that time is running out, and enhance emotional integration and life satisfaction. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Ego Integrity Versus Despair
The last stage in Erikson’s psychosocial theory. Older adults who are successful in establishing a sense of ego integrity are able to find a sense of coherence in life experiences and ultimately conclude that their lives are meaningful and valuable. Despair is the tragedy experiences if the retrospective look at one’s life is evaluated as meaningless and disappointing, emphasizing faults, mistakes, and what could have been. LO Compare the roles of self-concept, reminiscence, and life review in developing a sense of ego integrity. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

The Attainment of Ego Integrity
Relies on cognitive development Complexity and maturity in moral judgment and thinking style Tolerance for ambiguity Dialectical reasoning LO Compare the roles of self-concept, reminiscence, and life review in developing a sense of ego integrity. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Personality The Big 5 personality traits largely remain stable into late adulthood. Personality traits shift subtly over the life course: Agreeableness tends to increase with age. Extroversion and openness to experience decline with age (most pronounced drops after the mid-50’s). Conscientiousness increases from emerging to mid-adulthood, peaks between 50 and 70 and then declines. LO Discuss patterns of stability and change in personality traits over the adult years. Individuals’ patterns of Big 5 personality traits predict physical and cognitive functioning. For example, conscientiousness is associated with health and longevity as well as better performance on cognitive tasks (Bogg & Roberts, 2013; Goodwin & Friedman, 2006; Mõttus, Luciano, Starr, Pollard, & Deary, 2013). Personality is also associated with cognitive performance (Baker & Bichsel, 2006). Neuroticism, on the other hand, is associated with worse average cognitive functioning and a steeper rate of decline over a seven-year period (Chapman et al., 2012; Luchetti, Terracciano, Stephan, & Sutin, 2015). Big 5 personality traits show complex associations with well-being—specifically, well-being correlates with higher levels of extroversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness and with lower levels of neuroticism. Moreover, this relationship may be bidirectional. A study of 16,000 Australian adults’ traits predicted changes in well-being, yet changes in well-being in turn influenced traits; individuals who were initially extroverted, agreeable, conscientious, and emotionally stable subsequently increased in well-being and in turn became even more agreeable, conscientious, emotionally stable, and introverted (Soto, 2015). Overall, it seems that in their later years individuals become happier (more agreeable and less neurotic), more self-contented and self-centered (less extroverted and open), more laid back and satisfied with what they have, and less preoccupied with productivity (less conscientious; Marsh, Nagengast, & Morin, 2012). These personality changes aid older adults in developing a sense of acceptance, which they view as important to their well-being (Ryff, 1991) and needed to attain the Eriksonian goal of ego integrity. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Religiosity Nearly 75% of U.S. adults report being “absolutely certain” of the existence of God or a similar spiritual entity. LO Explain the contributions of religion and social support to older adults’ well-being. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Factors Associated With Religiosity
Religiosity can take the form of behaviors (attendance at religious services) or attitudes and orientation (prayer). In North America, low SES ethnic minority groups show the highest rates of religious participation. Religiosity is associated with positive socioemotional functioning. LO Explain the contributions of religion and social support to older adults’ well-being. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Social Support Older adults’ physical and psychological health can benefit from social interaction and a sense of support from significant others. Spouses and children are primary sources of support. Assistance and support send the message that older adults are valued and helps them to feel a sense of belonging and see their place in the wider social order. LO Explain the contributions of religion and social support to older adults’ well-being. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Perceived Support Low levels of perceived social support are associated with higher rates of cardiovascular disease, cancer, infectious diseases, and mortality. People who perceive social support are more likely to engage in health maintenance behaviors such as exercising, eating right, and not smoking. LO Explain the contributions of religion and social support to older adults’ well-being. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Disengagement Theory Older adults disengage from society as they anticipate death; at the same time society disengages from them. Elders’ withdrawal and society’s simultaneous disengagement serve to allow older adults to advance into very old age and minimize the disruptive nature of their deaths to society. LO Analyze four theories that account for changes in social interaction over the adult years. In the years since disengagement theory was proposed, however, it has become apparent that most older individuals prefer to remain engaged and that they benefit from social engagement (Johnson & Mutchler, 2014). Any amount of social activity is more beneficial than a lack of involvement (Glass, Mendes De Leon, Bassuk, & Berkman, 2006; Hinterlong, Morrow-Howell, & Rozario, 2007). Many people continue rewarding aspects of their work after retirement or adopt new roles in their communities. Most older adults retain the same leisure activities from worker to retiree and many develop new hobbies (Scherger, Nazroo, & Higgs, 2011). Some have argued that disengagement does not reflect healthy development but rather a lack of opportunities for social engagement (Lang, Featherman, & Nesselroade, 1997). Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Activity Theory Declines in social interaction are not a result of elders’ desires but are instead a function of social barriers to engagement. Adults attempt to remain active despite losses When adults lose roles due to retirement or disability, they attempt to replace the lost roles in an effort to stay active and busy. LO Analyze four theories that account for changes in social interaction over the adult years. Volunteer work, for example, can replace career roles and protect against decline in health and psychological well-being (Hao, 2008; Morrow-Howell, Hinterlong, Rozario, & Tang, 2003). A 13-year longitudinal study following more than 2,700 elders aged 65 and older found that civic engagement in social and productive activities reduced mortality as much as did physical fitness (Glass et al., 2006). Yet it is not simply the quantity of activity and social relationship that influences health and well-being but the quality (Pushkar et al., 2010). The more active elders are in roles they value—such as spouse, parent, friend, and volunteer—the more likely they are to report high levels of well-being and life satisfaction and to live longer, healthier lives (Adams, Leibbrandt, & Moon, 2011; Cherry et al., 2013; Litwin, 2003). Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Continuity Theory Successful aging entails not simply remaining active but maintaining a sense of consistency in self across their past into the future. Successful elders retain a sense that they are the same person they have always been despite physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes. LO Analyze four theories that account for changes in social interaction over the adult years. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
Older adults become increasingly motivated to derive emotional meaning from life and thereby cultivate emotionally close relationships and disengage from more peripheral social ties. Older adults place more emphasis on the emotional quality of their social relationships and interactions. LO Analyze four theories that account for changes in social interaction over the adult years. According to socioemotional selectivity theory, the functions of social interactions change with age and psychological and cognitive development. Specifically, the information sharing function of friendship becomes less salient. For example, young adults often turn to friends for information, but older adults often have accumulated decades of knowledge. Instead, it is the emotion-regulating function of social relationships that become more important during older adulthood (Carstensen & Mikels, 2005). Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Neighborhoods Most older adults live in suburban communities. Older adults who live in the suburbs tend to be healthier and wealthier and show higher rates of life satisfaction than those who live in cities. After retirement, they remain in the homes they have lived in for decades. One fourth of U.S. and one third of Canadian older adults live in rural areas where they tend to be more disadvantaged in terms of health, wealth, and availability of services; they are less likely to live near their children. LO Identify social contexts in which older adults live and their influence on development. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Residing at Home Most older adults live in or near the home they have lived in most of their lives. Living in their own home permits them the greatest degree of control over their lives. Because of divorce, widowing, or never marrying, about 1/3 of North American older adults live alone; nearly 50% of women over the age of 75 live alone. LO Identify social contexts in which older adults live and their influence on development. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

VIDEO CASE Multigenerational Family
Margaret has recently moved into her daughter Sonia’s busy multigenerational household. Watch as Margaret and Sonia describe the household and transition. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Figure 18.6: Older Adults Residing in Multigenerational Households
LO Identify social contexts in which older adults live and their influence on development. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Residential Communities
Residential communities include: Single houses Condominiums Large apartment complexes Designed to meet older adults’ physical and social needs. Some homes are designed for low-income elderly and are subsidized by the government; most are private. LO Identify social contexts in which older adults live and their influence on development. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Benefits of Residential Communities
Help offset declines in mobility and aid elders’ attempts to remain active. Supports social activities, the formation of friendships, and provision of assistance to others (all increase a sense a competence and leadership). LO Identify social contexts in which older adults live and their influence on development. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Nursing Homes Only a small number of older adults reside in nursing homes. Nursing homes offer the greatest amount of care, 24 hours a day and seven days a week. The most restrictive of elders’ autonomy. Leads to loneliness, feelings of helplessness, and depression. Family members often experience guilt and anguish when they see no other choice but nursing home placement. LO Identify social contexts in which older adults live and their influence on development. Nursing homes tend to be hospital-like settings in which elders often have limited opportunities to control their schedule or interact with others and their contact with peers generally is determined by staff. Constraints on autonomy can lead to loneliness, feelings of helplessness, and depression (Anderberg & Berglund, 2010). Among older adults who are not mentally impaired, those in nursing homes tend to show higher rates of depression and anxiety than their peers in the community (Gueldner et al., 2001; Salguero, Martínez-García, Molinero, & Márquez, 2011). Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Friendships in Older Adulthood
Friendships become more important and more fulfilling. Friendships become more centered on activities. Older adults report having more fun with their friends than do younger adults. Older adult friends tend to provide more emotional support than instrumental support. LO Explain the role of relationships with friends and siblings in older adulthood. Friends become fewer in number, but elders form new friendships throughout their lives. Older adults retain relationships with old friends who live far away, but their closest friends tend to live nearby. Similar to earlier in life, elders tend to choose friends who share similarities in age, race, ethnicity, and values. With increasing age and the death of friends, elders are more likely to report having friends of different generations (Johnson & Troll, 1994). In older adulthood, women’s friendships continue to be more intimate than men’s and they have more acquaintances with whom they spend time in contexts such as book clubs (Felmlee & Muraco, 2009). Men retain a few close friends, but they tend to rely on their wives for intimate and warm communication (Adams, Blieszner, & De Vries, 2000). Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Sibling Relationships in Older Adulthood
The majority of older adults have a sibling, most live within 100 miles of each other, and most communicate regularly. Most older adults feel close to their siblings and consider them to be close friends. Sisters tend to be closest, followed by cross-sex siblings. LO Explain the role of relationships with friends and siblings in older adulthood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Marital Satisfaction in Late Adulthood
Marital satisfaction peaks in late adulthood. Older adult marriages are characterized by greater satisfaction, less negativity, and a higher frequency of positive marital interactions than in other developmental periods. LO Compare the effects of marriage, divorce, and cohabitation on older adults’ functioning. With grown children and the onset of retirement, adults are no longer faced with the challenges of balancing child-rearing and career. Many women perceive greater fairness in their relationships and greater equity in household tasks, as retired men often take on a greater role in completing household tasks than at earlier periods (Kulik, 2002). Retirement provides the opportunity for couples to spend more time together, which many older women report enhances feelings of closeness with their husbands (Vinick & Ekerdt, 1991). A lifetime of shared experiences, such as raising families, navigating crises, and building memories together, brings couples closer (Huston, 2000). Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Cohabitation Cohabitation is increasingly common among older adults. Cohabitation among adults over age 50 more than doubled from 1.2 million in 2000 to 2.75 million adults in 2012 (8% of persons over age 50). Cohabitation is associated with more positive outcomes in older adulthood as compared with younger adulthood. Relationships tend to be of a longer duration; are more likely to have experienced a dissolution of a marriage; tend to report fewer marriage plans. LO Compare the effects of marriage, divorce, and cohabitation on older adults’ functioning. Cohabitors over the age of 50 tend to report higher-quality relationships than younger cohabitors, perceiving more fairness, more time spent alone with their partner, fewer disagreements, a lower likelihood of arguing heatedly or violently than younger cohabitors, and a lower likelihood of reporting thinking their relationship might be in trouble or that they will eventually separate (King & Scott, 2005). In addition, older cohabitors report higher levels of happiness than younger cohabitors or single elders. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Divorce and Remarriage
Couples over the age of 65 are less likely to divorce than are younger couples (less than 1% of all divorces comprise elders). Similar to younger people, older adults report divorcing because of poor communication, emotional detachment, and few shared interests. Rates of remarriage decline in older adulthood. Older men are more likely to remarry after divorce. LO Compare the effects of marriage, divorce, and cohabitation on older adults’ functioning. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

VIDEO CASE Grandparenthood
What is it like being a grandparent? Margaret and Elsie explain the joys and challenges of being a grandparent and how it differs from parenthood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Relationships With Adult Children
Adult child-to-parent assistance most often takes the form of emotional support and companionship. Most older adults and their adult children keep in touch even when they are separated by great distance. Older adult daughters tend to be closer and more involved with parents than sons. LO Discuss features of relationships between older adults and adult children and grandchildren. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Relationships With Grandchildren
About one half of older adults in Western nations have an adult grandchild. Grandchildren and great-grandchildren increase elders’ opportunities for emotional support. A history of close and frequent contact, positive experiences, and affectionate ties predicts good adult child-grandparent relationships. LO Discuss features of relationships between older adults and adult children and grandchildren. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Elder Maltreatment Acts or omissions that cause harm to the older person and occur within the context of a trusting relationship. Overall about 6% to 10% of elders in industrialized countries report experiencing abuse within the last month. LO Identify types of elder maltreatment and characteristics of victims. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Types of Elder Maltreatment
Physical abuse (Intentionally inflicting physical harm or discomfort through cutting, burning, and other acts of physical force. Sexual abuse (Inflicting unwanted sexual contact). Psychological abuse (Intentionally inflicting emotional harm through verbal assaults, humiliation, intimidation, or withdrawal of affection). Financial abuse (Exploiting the elder’s financial resources by theft or unauthorized use). Physical neglect (Providing inadequate care and failing to meet an elder’s basic needs for food, medication, physical comfort, and health care). LO Identify types of elder maltreatment and characteristics of victims. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Victims of Elder Maltreatment
Victims of maltreatment are more likely to be: Advanced in age. Suffer from physical and mental illness, frailty, and impairments with activities of daily living. Women and minorities. Those who experience a lack of social support of social isolation. LO Identify types of elder maltreatment and characteristics of victims. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Perpetrators of Elder Maltreatment
Caregivers, most often spouses or children, who lack social support, experience psychological problems, and feel overwhelmed with the task of care giving. Within nursing homes, institutional factors such as overcrowding and understaffing contribute to caregiver stress and can increase the likelihood of elder maltreatment. LO Identify types of elder maltreatment and characteristics of victims. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Figure 18.7: Labor Force Participation Rates in 1992, 2002, 2012, and Projected 2022, by Age LO Analyze influences on the timing of retirement and adaptation. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Deciding to Retire Retirement is a process that begins long before the last day of employment. Begins with imagining the possibility of retirement, what it might be like. Adults assess their abilities and their resources. Determine when is the best time to let go of the work role. Put plans into action. Influenced by job conditions, health, finances, and personal preferences. LO Analyze influences on the timing of retirement and adaptation. Workers tend to retire early from jobs that are stressful or hazardous and tend to delay retirement from jobs that are highly stimulating, in pleasant environments, and are a source of identity and self-esteem (AARP, 2008). Workers in professional occupations and those who are self-employed tend to stay in their jobs longer as compared with those in blue-collar or clerical positions. Women tend to retire earlier than men, often to care for an aging relative or spouse (Kim & Moen, 2001). Women in poverty, however, especially African American women, tend to work well into old age because they lack the financial resources to make retirement possible (see Box 18.1; Lee & Shaw, 2008; Verma, 2003). Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Transition to Retirement and Adjustment
Retirement is commonly thought of as a stressful experience. The transition to retirement is a process: Feelings of well-being and life satisfaction may decline as people worry and anticipate the loss of the work role. After retirement, retirees may experience a short honeymoon phase marked by vacations and new interests. Positive feelings may change to disenchantment. Period of reorientation involving new activities. Stability occurs once the retirees accommodate and adjust. LO Analyze influences on the timing of retirement and adaptation. Therefore, it was long theorized that retirement is followed by a temporary increase in well-being and life satisfaction, followed by a marked decline, and then a smaller increase that occurs once individuals adjust to the transition (Atchley, 1993). Instead, there appear to be at least two subgroups of retirees (Pinquart & Schindler, 2007; Shultz, Morton, & Weckerle, 1998; Wang, 2007). The majority show an increase in life satisfaction and adjust well to their post retirement life whereas some show more poor adjustment and poor life satisfaction following retirement (Reitzes & Mutran, 2004). Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Influences on Retirement Adjustment
Characteristics of the individual The individual’s social relationships The job Workers in high stress, demanding jobs, or those that provide little satisfaction tend to show positive adaptation to retirement. Positive adjustment to retirement is associated with engagement in satisfying relationships and leisure activities. LO Analyze influences on the timing of retirement and adaptation. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

The Dying Process There are predictable changes that occur in the dying person hours and days before death. The person sleeps most of the time, may be disoriented and less able to see, and may experience visual and auditory hallucinations. The dying person shows irregular breathing, produces less urine, and may have cool hands and an overly warm trunk. Closer to death, the person will lose interest and the ability to eat, drink, and talk; breathing will be difficult; bloating may occur; and psychological symptoms are common. LO Examine the dying process and cultural views surrounding death. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Dying Trajectories First trajectory: Some people show normal functioning and a steep decline representing a sudden death without warning or knowledge of illness. Second trajectory: The person who typically has advance warning of a terminal illness and experiences steady losses of function. Third trajectory: Marked by steady declines broken by sharp drops in functioning, the final leading to a loss of life functions and death. LO Examine the dying process and cultural views surrounding death. The second and third trajectories, which imply knowledge of impending death, make it possible for older adults to cope and come to terms with their own death. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Views of Death Today, death is removed from everyday life. Most deaths occur in hospital and nursing homes; only about one in five older adults dies at home. People no longer have contact with death in everyday settings which makes death more mysterious and feared. Death anxiety Fear and discomfort that centers around death and the process of dying. Older adults experience lower levels of death anxiety. LO Define the concept of death with dignity, and identify ways of supporting death with dignity. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Dying With Dignity Ending life in a way that is true to one’s preferences, controlling one’s end-of-life care. Requires planning so that the individual’s wishes are known ahead of time. LO Define the concept of death with dignity, and identify ways of supporting death with dignity. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Table 18.2: Advanced Directives
LO Define the concept of death with dignity, and identify ways of supporting death with dignity. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Figure 18.8: Percentage of Adults Who Have Written Down Their Wishes for End-of-Life LO Define the concept of death with dignity, and identify ways of supporting death with dignity. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Figure 18.9: Communications About End-of-Life Issues
LO Define the concept of death with dignity, and identify ways of supporting death with dignity. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Hospice An approach to end-of-life care that emphasizes dying patients’ needs for pain management, psychological, spiritual, and social support as well as death with dignity. Hospice services are enlisted after the physician and patient believe that the illness is terminal and that no treatment or cure is possible. The philosophy of the hospice approach emphasizes prolonging quality of life. LO Define the concept of death with dignity, and identify ways of supporting death with dignity. The purpose of hospice is to make the person comfortable but not to delay death. Medical care is aimed at controlling pain and helping the dying person function as well as possible. The medical team seeks to reduce pain and fear and aid the patient in fulfilling his or her desires. Competence is maintained as long as possible, and social impoverishment is minimized. Counseling services help the patient’s loved ones adjust and cope with their needs, strengthening relationship ties. The patients are encouraged to feel a sense of control in the death process. In this way, hospices meet the dying patients’ needs for palliative care, social support, and personal control (Kastenbaum, 1999). Hospice often includes follow-up services to help loved ones after the patient’s death. Although death is never an easy process, families can take comfort in knowing that their loved one’s wishes were honored and he or she died with dignity. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Bereavement The process of coping with the sense of loss that follows death. Mourning and grief are aspects of bereavement. Mourning refers to culturally patterned ritualistic ways of displaying and expressing bereavement (i.e., special clothing, food, prayers, and gatherings). Grief refers to the affective response to bereavement and includes an array of emotions such as hurt, anger, guilt, confusion, and other feelings. LO Discuss the grieving process. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Grief Process Grief is an active coping process in which the grieving person must confront the loss and come to terms with its effects on the physical world, interpersonal interactions, and his or her sense of self. Grieving is an individual experience. The person in grief must acknowledge his or her emotions, make sense of them, and learn to manage them. Grieving is influences by the relationship between the person and the deceased. LO Discuss the grieving process. Death of a spouse is a common type of loss in late life, yet it is experienced by most people as a profound personal loss. Spouses grieve a great deal and many grieve a very long time, with some grieving several years or more (Hansson & Stroebe, 2007). Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Dual-Process Model of Stress and Coping
Emphasizes two sets of losses that occur with bereavement. The first is emotional and concerns the grief that comes with losing an attachment figure. The second set of losses are the life changes that accompany the death, such as moving homes, experiencing social isolation, and reframing one’s identity. LO Discuss the grieving process. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Widowhood About 1/3 of U.S. older adults are widows, having lost their spouse. Women live longer than men and are less likely to remarry. Losing a spouse begins one of the most stressful transitions in life. Necessitates the renegotiation of a sense of identity Loneliness Compared to widowers, widows are more dependent on their children for financial and/or legal advice yet provide more emotional and instrumental support to their children. LO Identify effects of widowhood in older adulthood. Personal characteristics influence how elders manage the transition to widowhood. Those who are outgoing, have high self-esteem, and have a higher sense of perceived self-efficacy in managing tasks of daily living tend to fare better (Carr, 2004a; McCrae & Costa, 1988; Moore & Stratton, 2002). Maintaining close relationships with family and friends gives widows a sense of continuity, which aids in adjusting to the death of a spouse. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Risks of Widowhood Anxiety and depression (especially in the first year after the loss of a spouse). Physical health The “widowhood effect” – the increased likelihood for a recently widowed person to die. Men tend to show more health problems and higher rates of mortality. Higher risk of suicide. Widowers tend to show less social engagement. Widowers are more likely to remarry than are widows. LO Identify effects of widowhood in older adulthood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Socioemotional Development in Late Adulthood and the End of Life

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Socioemotional Development in Late Adulthood and the End of Life

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