1. Dr. Mark Hawkes Dakota State University
Praxis II: Principles of Learning & Teaching K-6 & 7-12 Review Session, part 2
Dr. Mark Hawkes
Dakota State University

2. Study Topics Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Instructional Strategies
Assessment Strategies

3. Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . . Motivation
Definition: Forces which energize, direct, and sustain behavior
Situated Motivation: The influence of the environment to motivate a person to behave in particular ways.

4. Extrinsic—motivated by external factors
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Sources of Motivation
Extrinsic—motivated by external factors
Intrinsic—factors inherent in the task being performed
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Deficiency needs prior to growth need
Almost always yields better outcomes in terms of learning and understanding

5. Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . . Sources of Motivation
Self-Efficacy—The extent to which a student believes they are capable of successfully completing a task.
Self-Determination—The extent to which a student believes they can make choices regarding the direction of their lives and choice of activities.

6. Process information for long-term storage
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Motivation to Learn: Meaningfulness of Activities Learning Goals vs. Performance Goals
Students:
Process information for long-term storage
Realize learning is a process trying hard and working through temporary setbacks
Most benefit from classroom experience
Students:
Avoid challenging tasks
Shoot for only minimal performance outcomes

7. Show personal enthusiasm for the subject
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Encouraging Motivation
Present subject matter to in ways that relates to the student’s current and future interests (hot cognition)
Show personal enthusiasm for the subject
Demonstrate to students that you believe they are genuinely interested in the subject and are motivated to learn
Focus students’ attention on learning goals

8. Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Motivation: Affiliation
Definition: The desire to like and be liked by others, to seek out friendly relationships
Learning Implication: Find ways to help students learn subject matter and meet affiliation needs at the same time
Strategies: Role play, debates, cooperative learning, competitions among two or more teams . . .

9. Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . . Motivation: Approval
Definition: A desire to gain acceptance and positive judgments from other people
Learning Implication: Students may be engage in a task to please an authority figure
Strategies: Praise students frequently for the things they do well keeping in mind the balance of approval student desire from peers as opposed to teachers.

10. Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . . Motivation: Anxiety
Definition: Feeling of uneasiness about an event because you do not know about the outcome
State vs. Trait Anxiety
Facilitating vs. Debilitating Anxiety
Learning Implication: Highly anxious students tend to achieve at lower levels that those at which they are capable of achieving

11. Set realistic expectations for performance
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Motivation: Addressing Anxiety
Set realistic expectations for performance
Challenge students within their “zone of proximal development”—tasks within their reach
Teach learning strategies
Provide supplementary resources
Provide feedback about specific behaviors

12. Definition: explanations of an “attributes” success or failure
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Motivation: Locus of Control
Definition: explanations of an “attributes” success or failure
Locus
Stability
Controllability
Influencing factors on attribution: past successes and failures, rewards and punishment, expectations, messages about success or failure (earned or unearned?)

13. Mastery Orientation vs. Learned Helplessness
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Motivation: Locus of Control
Mastery Orientation vs Learned Helplessness
Attribute accomplishments to own abilities and efforts
Seek challenging goals, seek challenges, persist in failure
Achieve better over the long run.
Attribute successes to to outside and uncontrollable factors
Students generally underestimate their own ability
Students set easy goals, avoid challenges, and respond to failure in counterproductive ways.

14. Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Motivation: Operant Conditioning
Definition: when behaviors are followed by desirable consequences they tech to increase in frequency. When behaviors produce results, they decrease or disappear.
Response precedes reinforcement
Reinforcement is contingent on the desired behavior

15. Classical vs. Operant S R R S
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Motivation: Operant Conditioning
Classical vs Operant
S R
The response occurs as the result of the stimulus—the learner has no control over whether the response occurs
R S
The response is usually voluntary—the learner can control whether or not it occurs

16. Punishment—Presentation/Removal.
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Motivation: OC Reinforcements
Reinforcer: Any response the increases the frequency of a particular behavior
Primary vs. Secondary
Continuous vs. Intermittent
Shaping
Positive Reinforcement—concrete, social, activity. Extrinsic/Intrinsic.
Negative Reinforcement—increase of behavior through removal of a stimulus.
Punishment—Presentation/Removal.

17. Bogus concerns: Reinforcement is bribery
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Motivation: Reinforcements
Bogus concerns:
Reinforcement is bribery
Reinforcement develops dependence on concrete rewards for appropriate behavior
Reinforcing one student teaches other students to be bad
Changing a problem behavior does not change it’s underlying cause

18. Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Motivation: Reinforcements
Real Concerns:
Extrinsic reinforcement may encourage students to accomplish a task in a minimally acceptable way rather than in a maximally beneficial manner
Extrinsic reinforcement of a behavior may undermine any intrinsically reinforcing value that the activity has for the students

19. Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . . Motivation: Punishment
Presentation Punishment—The presentation of an aversive stimulus after the behavior.
Removal Punishment—Involves the removal of a pleasant stimulus after the behavior.

20. May only temporarily suppress the behavior
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Motivation: Punishment Problems
May only temporarily suppress the behavior
Relationship between the undesired response and punishment may not be recognized
Negative emotional responses
May lead to aggression
Does not illustrate the correct behavior
May cause physical or psychological harm

21. Effective forms: Verbal reprimand
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Motivation: Punishment
Effective forms:
Verbal reprimand
Response Cost (withdrawal of a reinforcer)
Logical consequence
Time out
In-house suspension

22. Avoid vindictive kinds of punishment
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Motivation: Punishment Guidelines
Avoid vindictive kinds of punishment
Choose a punishment strong enough to discourage the behavior
Identify expectations and consequences
Don’t bluff and punish immediately
Explain why behavior is unacceptable
Punish each and every time the behavior occurs
Teach and reinforce desirable alternatives

23. Establish daily routines
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment Classroom Management
Establish daily routines
Promote Self-Regulation (monitoring, selection of tasks, evaluation)
Give timely feedback
Authoritatively developed classroom rules and consequences
Pacing and structure of lesson

24. Instructional Strategies . . . Organizing Knowledge: Concepts
Conceptualizing—mentally grouping or categorizing objects or events.
Identifying Defining Features—all positive instances of the objects; correlational feature.
Prototyping—constructing an image of a typical example for comparative purposes.
Examplars—Many illustrations of the concept.

25. Schemas: Organized bodies of knowledge about specific topics.
Instructional Strategies Organizing Knowledge: Schemas and Scripts
Schemas: Organized bodies of knowledge about specific topics.
Scripts: Predictable sequence of events related to a particular activity.

26. Instructional Strategies . . . Organizing Knowledge: Personal Theories
General belief system about how the world operates. Theories are composed of the concepts and relationships among components of the belief system.

27. Experimentation—hands-on manipulation
Instructional Strategies Promoting Effective Knowledge Construction
Experimentation—hands-on manipulation
Exposure to ideas of others—historical and contemporary
Conceptual understanding—integrated, interrelated, meaningful learning
Dialogue—verbalize, share, discuss, debate
Authentic activities—”real world” application

28. Instructional Strategies . . . Higher Level Thinking: Transfer
Definition: Applying skills or knowledge from a previous experience in a new situation.
Positive—Negative
Specific—General
Affecting factors . . Instructional time, meaningful learning, practice time, similarity of tasks

29. Instructional Strategies . . . Higher Level Thinking: Problem Solving
Well-defined—Ill-defined
Algorithm—Heuristic
Teach within the context of specific areas
Scaffold difficult problems
Induce small-group work to encourage the exchange of ideas and open discussion of issues
Problem of “mental-set”

30. Instructional Strategies . . . Higher Level Thinking: Critical Thinking
Definition: Evaluating information or arguments in terms of their accuracy or worth.
Verbal reasoning
Argument analysis
Hypothesis testing
Decision-making
Inductive-deductive thinking

31. Instructional Strategies . . . Higher Level Thinking: Metacognition
Definition: Knowledge and beliefs regarding one’s own cognitive processes and the attempt to regulate these processes to maximize learning and memory.
Successful Strategies: Teach how to study content (note taking, elaboration, summarizing, organizing, identifying important information).

32. Instructional Strategies . . . Cooperative Learning
Definition: An approach to learning where students work in small groups to help one another learn
Promotes:
Greater comprehension
Group reinforcement
Increased perspective taking
Construct more sophisticate ideas
Higher self-efficacy with group work

33. Instructional Strategies . . . Cooperative Learning
Give group members a common goal to work for
Identify appropriate group behaviors
Structure tasks so that success depends on students helping each other
Devise ways to make students both individually and group accountable
Have students evaluate their efforts at the end of a task

34. Instructional Strategies . . . Direct Instruction
Teacher led process of review, presentation, rehearsal, practice and assessment with small bits of content.
Most suitable for material requiring step-by-step sequencing.
Recognizable because of it’s high degree of teacher-student interaction
Limitations: not generally suitable for whole class instruction, more successful in small group work.

35. Instructional Strategies . . . Direct Instruction: Methods
Madeline Hunter’s “Effective Teaching Model”
David Ausubel’s “Advance Organizers”
Mastery learning
Demonstrations
Mnemonics
Note-taking
Outlining
Use of visual aids

36. Instructional Strategies . . . Direct Instruction: Methods
Madeline Hunter “Effective Teaching Model” –
Get students set to learn
Provide information effectively
Check for understanding and give guided practice
Allow for independent practice

37. Instructional Strategies . . . Discovery Learning
Bruner’s approach, in which students work on their own to discover basic principles
Student interaction with the physical or social environment (manipulatives, discussion groups, experiments)
Criticisms: Incorrect constructions of content may occur; Requires a considerable time investment
Provide structure to activities and help students relate their learning to key concepts and principles to maximize the effect of discovery learning.

38. Instructional Strategies . . . Whole Group Discussion
Can be applied to many disciplines
Helps students see information as dynamic, evolving understanding and not simply fact.
Leads to meaningful understanding of concepts and to subsequently better transfer to new situations and problems

39. Instructional Strategies . . . Whole Group Discussion
Tips:
Make sure students have sufficient prior knowledge of the topic.
Make sure students feel comfortable sharing differing viewpoints
Use combinations of small and whole class discussion
Let students help control the pace and direction of the discussion
Apply pro/con or judiciary structures

40. Instructional Strategies . . . Expository Instruction
Being “exposed” to the content, verbally, textually, etc in its “final” form.
Organization, visual aides, pacing, signals, and summaries facilitate students learning from expository instruction.
Criticism: Puts students in passive roles as learners.

41. Instructional Strategies . . . Mastery Instruction
Ensuring each student masters the content before moving to more complex ideas.
Criticisms: Assumes all students can comprehend ideas on an equal level; requires frequent adjustment in instructional pacing
Benefits: Research shows better student achievement on standardized tests, more confidence, enjoyment, and interest in subjects are a result of Mastery Learning.

42. Instructional Strategies . . . Computer-Based Instruction
Programmed Instruction: Active responding, shaping, intermediate reinforcement—linear.
Computer-assisted instruction: sequencing optioned on learners responses—branching.
Hypertext/Hypermedia: Computer-based instruction that allows student to progress through material at their own pace and direction—auto-instructional.
Limitations: Given the breadth of information available through CBI, some students may not be able to identify relevant learning content.

43. Instructional Strategies . . . Computer-Based Instruction
Computer-supported instruction has proved able to help students: solve problems, construct knowledge and produce products, communicate ideas better and encode factual information.
Secondary issues of computer-supported instruction include increased student attendance, increased time on task, less behavioral problems, and more collaboration.
Caveat: Technology itself is not a school-reform solution.

44. Instructional Strategies . . . Reciprocal Teaching
Peer tutoring
Useful at the small group and large group levels
Replicates the summarizing, questioning, clarifying and predicting process that is helpful in teaching students to read
Effective for all age levels of students

45. Instructional Strategies . . . Reciprocal Teaching: Advantages
Both teacher and learner model effective reading and learning strategies
Students internalize the learning process that they use in their discussions with others
The structured nature of a reciprocal teaching session scaffolds students’ efforts to make sense of the things they see and hear

46. Instructional Strategies . . . Peer Tutoring
Definition—Students who have mastered a topic teaching those who have not
Encourages active responses
Encourages students to organize and elaborate on what they have learned
Gives students an opportunity to ask more questions of the content
Promotes cooperation and other social skills
Benefits tutors as well as those being tutored

47. Instructional Strategies . . . Peer Tutoring
Make sure students understand the material they are teaching and that they use effective instructional techniques
Include special needs students in peer tutoring activities
Make sure all students have the opportunity to be both tutor and tutee
Structure the interaction so that students are aware of their tasks and learning outcomes

48. Instructional Strategies . . . Inquiry and Simulation
Inquiry method – Approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation and students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their conclusions
Simulations – The idea that skills and knowledge are tied to simulation in which they were learned and difficult to apply in new settings.

49. Instructional Strategies . . . Concept Mapping
Concept Mapping – A diagram of concepts within an instructional unit and the interrelationships among them.

50. Darci Love Huron, 8th Grade Organizing the Study of 8th grade history

51. Rachel Rassmussen Rapid City Central HS
9th grade Geophysical Science

52. Jason Smidt, Medary Elem. Brooking Level: 5th Grade
This diagram is a wonderful way to explain the ecological food pyramid.  It uses graphics to easily show what animals are in each group.  It also show the sun and shows photosynthesis.

53. Lorna Hofer, Tech Facilitator Watertown School District

54. Assessment Strategies . . . Contrasts
Assessment Grades
Formative Summative
Diagnostic Final
Non-Judgmental Evaluative
Private Administrative
Often Anonymous Identified
Partial Integrative Specific Holistic
Mainly Subtext Mostly Text Suggestive Rigorous
Goal-Directed Content-Driven

55. Assessment Strategies . . . Purposes
Formative
During instructional phase
Gauging understanding
Informal
Summative
After instruction
Evaluating understanding and comprehension
Evaluating mastery
Higher stakes
Formal

56. Assessment Strategies . . . Formal vs. Informal
Form: Observations, questioning
Very practical, usually spontaneous
Good for assessing students “interest” in a subject
Flexible to spur of the moment changes and adjustments
Will rarely, if ever, be standardized
Focus on assessing understanding within a specific content domain
Very much planned in advance
Closely tied to guiding instructional objectives
Bases results on “samples” of content

57. Assessment Strategies . . . Paper/Pencil vs. Performance
Suitable for both recall and recognition tasks
Easily standardized
Can sample knowledge on many topics in a short time
Students should understand scoring process
Portray the assessment as an opportunity to improve skills
Efficiently uses class time
Formatively oriented
Helps reduce the “evaluative” climate
Difficult to achieve standardization and reliability
Often time-consuming to administer and score

58. Assessment Strategies . . . Criterion vs. Normed
Tells us what the students have achieved in relation to specific instructional objectives
Oriented to achieving mastery
Diagnoses weaknesses very well
Compares a students’ performance on a task with the performance of other students
Frequently used in standardized tests
Can undermine the sense of community and create undo competitive situation

59. Assessment Strategies . . . Types: Portfolio
Definition—A systematic collection of student work assembled over time
Integrates instruction and assessment
Can be useful in promoting students self-evaluation
Can illustrate the complex nature of students’ achievement
Often have low reliability and validity
Almost impossible to standardize

60. Assessment Strategies . . . Types: Objective
Multiple Choice: Stem—alternatives. Recognition task. Can measure a variety of learning levels, easy to grade.
True/False: Statements a student judges as correct or incorrect. Easy to write and grade, tests recognition with a high probability of guesses.
Matching: Identify relationships. Asks students to apply discrimination skills. Tests a large amount of information in a short space.

61. Assessment Strategies . . . Types: Constructed Response
Tests high-level cognitive skills, but, time-consuming to grade and difficult to ensure reliability.
Short answer: Requires a single word, set of words, or sentence or complete.
Essay: Requires learners to organize and express their thoughts over several or more paragraphs.
Problem-solving: Presents situation for the learner to diagnose and solve.

62. Assessment Strategies . . . Other Types
Aptitude tests
Structured observations
Anecdotal notes
Journals
Self and peer evaluation
Case study analysis

63. Assessment Strategies . . . Assessment Characteristics
Reliability—consistency of results
Standardization—consistency in content, format and scoring
Validity—the assessment measures what it is supposed to measure
Practicality—The feasibility of the assessment in terms of development time, administration time, cost, etc.

64. Assessment Strategies . . . Construction Tips
Target the specific behaviors and thought processes you want them to learn
Be difficult enough that students must expend energy to succeed.
Show students where and why their answers might have been wrong, and how they might improve on their answers.
Demonstrate, where appropriate, how several paths to the right answer might be taken.

65. Assessment Strategies . . . Scoring
Mean - The arithmetic average of a set of scores. It is calculated by adding all scores and then dividing by the total number of people who have obtained those scores.
Median – Middle score in a group of scores
Mode – Most frequently occurring score
Sampling strategy

66. Assessment Strategies . . . Scoring
Analytical scoring – Scoring students’ performance on an assessment by evaluating various aspects of their performance separately
Holistic scoring – Summarizing students’ performance on an assessment with a single score
Rubrics – A list of components that performance on an assessment task should ideally include; used to guide the scoring of students’ responses

67. Assessment Strategies . . . Reporting Results
Percentile rank – A test score that indicates the percentage of people in the norm group getting a raw score equal to a particular student’s raw score.
Mastery levels
Raw score – A test score based solely on the number or point value of correctly answered items
Grade equivalent score – Measure of grade level based on comparison with norming samples for each grade
Standard deviation – A statistic that reflects how close together or far apart a set of scores are and thereby indicates the variability of the scores
Scaled Score