1. Ethical Issues in Science

2. The field of Philosophy of Science is a second order discipline in which the tools of philosophy are brought to bear on science. An important concern of philosophy of science borders on moral issues regarding scientific research.
Essentially in raising ethical questions about science the goal is to apply fundamental principles of ethics to science and scientific research

3. Some of the questions that may be asked in this regard are: how does ethics affect science? Are scientific researches conducted with regard for ethics? Should the outcome of science take ethical issues into consideration? This last question is asked considering the fact that science may be taken as an end in itself which ought not to be limited in anyway.

4. What is Ethics?
An important place to start this lecture is to ask the question- What is ethics?
. Ethics is "an inquiry into the moral worth of human conducts."

5. As an inquiry, it touches every facet of life where one can point to one human conduct or the other. This is the reason why there is an ethics of nearly everything- Business ethics; environmental ethics, medical ethics, work ethics, Christian ethics, Medical Ethics, Bioethics, just to mention a few.

6. Accordingly, David B. Resnik holds that “Many different disciplines, institutions, and professions have standards for behavior that suit their particular aims and goals. These standards also help members of the discipline to coordinate their actions or activities and to establish the public's trust of the discipline. For instance, ethical standards govern conduct in medicine, law, engineering, and business. Ethical norms also serve the aims or goals of research and apply to people who conduct scientific research or other scholarly or creative activities. There is even a specialized discipline, research ethics, which studies these norms.”

7. The ultimate aim of ethics is to furnish us with standards with which we can make "distinction between those of our actions that are good and those that are bad, between those that are right and those that are wrong, between those that are acceptable and those that not acceptable, and between those that are commendable or not commendable.”

8. What is the Moral Standard?
A major question that is peculiar to normative ethics is: What is the moral standard?

9. Normative Ethics
This is the field of ethics where concern is with how people ought to behave. Concentration is on determining the appropriate standards for the rightness or wrongness of an action.
The attempt in normative ethics is to come up with ethical theories that people can appeal to as guides for making moral decisions

10. The attempt to discover the appropriate moral standard has made many moral philosophers to identify a few:
1. the consequence of the action can help determine the right standard
2. the intention of the person performing the action
3. the nature of the action

11. Some issues raised in ethics and science
Questions are raised regarding using humans for scientific research
Questions are raised about the implication of scientific research for the environment
Questions are raised about the use of animals for research
There are also issues raised about the need to avoid falsification of results about data gathering and plagiarism

12. There is no doubt that scientific products may have negative consequences on nature causing global warming and pollution of the air, land and sea. It is through ethical appraisal that standards that ought to be followed in science and scientific research can be developed

13. Ethics seeks to limit extreme pursuit of scientific knowledge that has little or no regard for human values. If there must be any transformation at all, the transformation brought about by science must be positive and not negative or destructive.

14. Reasons why scientists should adhere to ethical norms
1. in order to promote the fundamental goal of researching. The aim of every research is to arrive at knowledge and truth. If ethics does not guide what is done in the field, then there will be a lot of fabrications, falsifications of, and tampering with, research data. And the consequence is that the ultimate goal of science and scientific research is defeated.

15. 2. Ethics ensures accountability to the public
2. Ethics ensures accountability to the public. It is important to note that every discipline is aimed, or at least should be aimed, at promoting the interest of the larger society by ensuring that discipline solve one challenge or the other confronting people. It is only through regard for ethical norms that this can be sustained. Otherwise people will begin to do as they like in doing science

16. 3. To forestall danger to the researcher, his team and the society: in the conduct of a research there are guidelines and ethical issues that must be adhered to otherwise the scientist may jeopardise human life- both his and those surrounding him. According to David S Resnik “Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects, students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of staff and students.”

17. Ethical Principles that must be followed in scientific research
Davis Resnik has identified the following ethical principles that must be adhered to
Honesty
Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, research sponsors, or the public.

18. Objectivity
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.

19. Integrity
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.

20. Carefulness
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals. .

21. Openness
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.

22. Respect for Intellectual Property
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.

23. Confidentiality
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.

24. Responsible Publication
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.

25. Responsible Mentoring
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.

26. Respect for colleagues
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

27. Social Responsibility
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy.

28. Non-Discrimination
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors not related to scientific competence and integrity.

29. Competence
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.

30. Legality
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

31. Animal Care
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.

32. Human Subjects Protection
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly