1. English and Englishes Jennifer Smith
Chapter 5

2. English has always been a highly mobile language, beginning with it’s arrival to the British Isles from Europe in the fifth century and it’s subsequent spread around the globe.
The socio-historical conditions such as the migration patterns, settlement history and the geographical factors and the contact with other languages all played a role in the rise of English.

3. In chapter 5, Jennifer Smith continues to work within the framework of Kachru’s Inner, Outer and Expanding Circles, and adopts a sociolinguistic approach to language study.

4. The main questions answered in Chapters 3 &4 were:
* How did English become an international language with multicultural identities and diverse forms?
* Why is English, and not any other language, the global language of the 20th and 21st centuries?
The questions answered in this chapter are:
* How do these varieties of English differ/ what are their distinguishing features from Standard English of England?

5. Socio-linguistic approach to studying English varieties:
Socio-linguistics is the study of language and society.
Describing English:
The levels of language to be discussed are:
Lexis: Vocabulary – Lexical Variation
Grammar : Syntax- Morphology
Phonology: Vowels and Consonants and their phonetic realization- Stress patterns (Rhythm) - Intonation

6. To summarize some of the effects of various socio-historical effects,
we will categorize some of the variations in different types contexts ranging from:
Inner Circle (Old and New World),
Outer Circle (2nd language and Pidgin )
Expanding Circles ( EFL)

7. English in the Old World:
Once of the defining features of dialects in the “Old World” – the united Kingdom and the republic of Ireland is how many regional varieties there are: Cockney, Geordie, Doric, Hiberno- English

8. English in the Old World:
Some of the main reasons that help variation in the Old World, Inner Circle are:
variation in the dialects spoken by different Anglo- Saxon tribes who first brought English to Britain/ patterns of settlement;
time-depth of English in the region; ( A period of time a language / group of languages and cultures have been undergoing independent generic development);

9. English in the Old World:
Some of the main reasons that help variation in the Old World, Inner Circle are: c. the long history which has allowed further differences to develop; d. contact with other languages such as Celtic, Norse and French; e. retention of old forms of English; f. innovation within the regional dialects.

10. English in the ‘Old World’
Country/ Circle : England- Inner Circle, Old World
North vs. South
The Black Country
Explanation for Variation
Geographical Isolation/ (e.g. south and north of the Fens, an isolated swampy area which in the past was difficult to cross)
Other examples include the case of the Black Country (see comment on pp.202-3).

11. English in England Linguistic Features that Distinguish the dialect
North vs. South
Laugh (/laf/ in the north, while it is now /la:f/ in the south;
Butter (/but∂/, changed /b^t∂/
The changes described are examples of changes that happened in the south, but not in the north, as neither the people nor the linguistic changes could cross the swamps

12. English in England’
Trudgill identifies 16 regions of England and defined features of these areas.
Dialect division is continually changing due to the social mobility and urbanization and dialect ‘attrition’( the loss of traditional dialect form)’ in urban areas.

13. The Black Country Dialect

14. Black Country Dialect
Speakers are often faced by stigma but does not appear to be at risk of disappearing.
Working class people are less mobile
Social and demographic changes seem to alter the Black Country dialect instead of leveling it to look more standard.
People seem proud of the variety.

15. Scotland-Inner Circle
It might be thought the source of variation is mainly the influence of the Gaelic indigenous languages; but little of Gaelic influence can be traced. Some of the main reasons are:
Innovation that have developed over time in Scotland .
/gied/- past tense of /go/
l’vocalisation /wall/ – /wa/
Retention from older forms of English.
oot= out old English but in the south was changed into out
Velar fricative /x/ as night and thought

16. Examples of variation include:
So we a’gied down there. (gied=went)
I selt it a few year ago to the rowp man.
Doctor Paterson telt him right up, right oot .
Let yon be his, let yon be his hoose.
I ken you’re right.
I thocht ‘Ouch, I’m nae getting intae that..
Can you not see her?
My hair needs washed.

17. Realization of the linguistic features:
That is in addition to :
‘l- vocalization’
non-prevocalic /r/or what is known as rhoticity.
hw pronunciation and spelling instead of wh ; whales and Wales are different.
including patterns of word order, such as: needs washed, or Can you not see?

18. Some phonological features include: (mainly influenced by versions of Lowland Scots in Scotland)
a low unrounded back vowel so that soft sounds like saft (/sa:ft/)
the velar fricative /x/ words like thought to be pronounced as thocht.
l-vocalization in words like ball (to give ba’)

19. Realization of the linguistic features:
Many grammatical forms also can be traced to Scots, such as:
Youngsters gets far too much and they’ve no manners some of them at all.
Singular (s) with plural subject, when noun;
Standard English agreement when the subject is a pronoun: they‘ve
Examples of variation in syntax in Hiberno-English, are:
They are after doing the work=they finished the work.
A lot of them are looking for more land.
 It’s looking for more land, a lot of them are. (It-clefting)

20. Scotland-Inner Circle
Doric a variety spoken in Buckie a small fishing town in the North Coast . Due to socio-linguistic isolation they developed their own norms.
Far you stayin’ Fin ye’re here? Replacing ( Wh)
Quines and loones for boys and girls.

21. Wales – Inner Circle North and West vs. South
Till the start of the 18th century the majority of the people in Wales spoke Welsh
Dialects in the south are said to have strong affinities with dialects in the south-west of England and West Midlands,
whereas northern and western regions are said to be more influenced by the structure of Welsh, particularly in areas where English has the least time depth.
Metropolitan/urbanized Cardiff and Port Talbot.

22. Wales – Inner Circle
The influence of Welsh can be seen on English grammar For example, the reference to habitual action: (a) He goes to the cinema every week. (b) He do go to the cinema every week. (c) He’s going to the cinema every week.

23. Wales – Inner Circle
(a) is in general use in Wales (b) is found in areas of early Anglicization and is linked to Midlands dialects. (c) is largely confined to late Anglicization areas and can be connected to the influence of Welsh.

24. Wales – Inner Circle
Difference in prosody ( influence of Welsh) (features of pronunciation that include stress, rhythm, intonation, etc.: Popular in Welsh accents is a ‘sing-song’ or ‘lilting intonation’ and that might be because the vowel in the final unstressed syllable for words such as sofa and butter is lengthened and has fuller quality when compare to the standard English and might be perceived as melodic.

25. Ireland – Inner Circle
Northern vs. Southern Ireland Variations within the Northern Area East vs. West “Linguistically, as well as politically, Ireland is divided into two broad sections, the north and the south’ related to patterns of settlement.

26. Ireland – Inner Circle
The northern area is divided further into three major dialect regions/ isoglosses- which are geographical boundaries of particular linguistic features, represented by lines on dialect maps. These are Ulster Scots (derived from Lowland Scots settlers; Mid-Ulster English (derived from settlers coming largely from northern England); and a variety spoken in the west, (arising from Ulster English), added to which is the capital of Belfast, where a number of different varieties converge.  

27. Ireland – Inner Circle
In the southern area, Irish slowly receded from east to west, resulting in two broad dialect areas for Southern Irish English, also known as Hiberno-English.
Some grammatical patterns [example it-clefting, [which includes clefting the sentence into two parts, each clause having its own subject and the first starting with it]of Hiberno-English are derived from Irish, but many are also derived from seventeenth century English which was taken to Ireland by colonists and has since become obsolete in England.

28. Ireland – Inner Circle
Some phonological features include: (mainly influenced by versions of Lowland Scots in Scotland)
a low unrounded back vowel so that soft sounds like saft (/sa:ft/)
the velar fricative /x/ in words like thought to be pronounced as thocht.
l-vocalization in words like ball (to give ba’)

29. Ireland – Inner Circle
Many grammatical forms also can be traced to Scots, such as:
Youngsters gets far too much and they’ve no manners some of them at all.
Singular (s) with plural subject, when noun;
Standard English agreement when the subject is a pronoun: they‘ve

30. Ireland – Inner Circle
Examples of variation in syntax in Hiberno-English, are:
They are after doing the work they finished the work.
It’s looking for more land, a lot of them are. (It-clefting)

31. USA - Inner Circle, New World A
 History of colonies goes back to 1607, the first colony in Jamestown, Virginia, followed by Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1620.
First wave of colonizers came from southern England, so New England and the South have common linguistic features with southern British English.
The aristocratic nature of input is preserved in the Boston- Brahmin’ families in New England – parodied sometimes in film for their ‘posh’ accent

32. USA - Inner Circle, New World A
Most of the second wave settlers came from Northern England, Scotland and Ireland and are said to have constituted the basis of colonial mid-Atlantic American speech – which became the basis for the mainstream, inland northern and western type of American English (Schneider)

33. USA - Inner Circle, New World A
The process of linguistic mixing and blending, the marked forms (i.e. which are unusual) disappear in favor of unmarked forms (i.e. those which are shared by a large number of dialects).
This resulted in rather leveled, homogenous varieties in the West, but with more divergence varieties remaining along the East coast

34. Ocracoke Dialect

35. USA -- Inner Circle, New World B
In spite of more homogeneity in America than in the British Isles, three examples of heterogeneity can be described:
1. Ocracoke dialect, spoken on an island in the Outer banks of North Caroline, first settled I in 1700s and isolated for 300 years from the rest of the USA

36. USA -- Inner Circle, New World B
She weren’t there.
She’s to the house.
He kept a-looking for the rain.
He might could do it. (double modal)
It is nasty-some out there today. (‘some is an intsifier= very).
Using her pronoun in subject position instead of she.
In words like soda where the last syllable is unstressed, the Ocracoke dialect gives full length to the vowel and replaces the final schwa with a long /i/ sound – sodi , extry (instead of soda, extra)

37. USA -- Inner Circle, New World C
2. New York working class accent
It is stigmatized by mainstream American speech, but people have lots of pride in it, and the lack of social mobility within the group as well as their closely knit community and the sense of identity promotes the preservation of that accent/dialect

38. USA -- Inner Circle, New World C
Young generations make changes/ innovations but not to match mainstream usage.
Prevocalic (Non-rhotic) “r” which is disliked by prestigious New Yorkers.

39. USA -- Inner Circle, New World D
3. African American Vernacular English
Two hypotheses explaining its variation from mainstream American dialect:
The Creolist Hypothesis advocates: in the 1960’s and 1970’s advocates of this argument proposed that contact between the slaves were different in pattern from contact patterns among European settlers. They had little contact with their enslavers: the contact was with other slaves who all spoke different African languages.

40. USA -- Inner Circle, New World D
The Anglicist Hypothesis, dating mainly in the 1950’s; sees source of Creole spoken by slaves as being the different varieties of European languages going back to the British Isles who brought about different varieties into the Americas which were then learnt by the slaves. (they give as evidence the fact that some features of AAVE can be found in certain “traditional” or “relic” dialect of say Irish or rural English or Scots…

41. USA -- Inner Circle, New World D
In current usage, the features of AAVE are emphasized as a sign of ethnic and ancestral identity, even among educated and African Americans
The substrates / African languages are the varieties that provide the most important contributions to the grammars of the pidgins and creoles (that developed out of them); while the superstrate (English, language of the power) has the major influence on their vocabulary – is the lexifier language.

42. USA -- Inner Circle, New World D
Grammatical variations
Sometimes my ears be itching.
She sick (omission of copula)
She walk down the street every day (absence of -s in singular third person verb forms).
Jack car (absence of possessive ‘s) p.218

43. USA -- Inner Circle, New World D
Phonological examples include
Lif’ up the box (the reduction of consonant clusters)
She live on the skreet (skr for str in initial consonants)
I aks him for money (use of ‘metathesis’ where consonant order is switched).
  This ain’t right.
They had fixed the door and they had painted the walls. (past perfect without having two actions one preceding the other, i.e. where Standard American would use a simple past verb)

44. Australia and New Zealand -- Inner Circle, New World
English came to Australia and New Zealand relatively late, in the eighteenth century; most of them were convicts;
75% of the settlers were (and immigrants still are) of British origin, while other Europeans constitute about 20% and the remaining 5 % are Asians and Aborigines (1%). Aborigines were displaced by British settlers.

45. Australia and New Zealand -- Inner Circle, New World
Settlement in New Zealand in 1800’s came upon agreement between Maori chiefs and the British Crown; Some settlers came from Germany and Scandinavia but the majority remains to be of British origins. New dialects got formed with children around 1850’s, and the Gold Rush may have diluted the influence of settler dialects.
Settlement patterns in New Zealand, such as Scottish settlers in Southland create a difference in pronunciation

46. Australia and New Zealand -- Inner Circle, New World
Many linguistic features are shared by both Australia and New Zealand. In pronunciation: *The linking ‘r’ : law and order becomes (lawr and order) *l-vocalization (ball is pronounced as bah) * pronunciation of (t) in both writer and rider is the same.

47. Australia and New Zealand -- Inner Circle, New World
In intonation: they share HRT (High Rising Tone ) used for declarative sentences; it has also be referred to as AQI (Australian Questioning Intonation) Differences exist: The vowel in ‘Fish and Chips’ is raised and fronted so they become ‘feesh and cheeps in Australia, while they are pronounced as fush and chups in New Zealand. Southland New Zealand has a rhotic, non-prevocalic /r/ which is not the case in the rest of New Zealand

48. India – Outer Circle
The British first arrived in India in the early 1600’s, established trading posts in a number of cities and took control of the East India Company.
By 1756, the British were practically controlling the country through the Company’s great influence. This was followed by the Raj, a period of British rule that lasted till the Independence in 1947.

49. India – Outer Circle
English was first taught to the local population through the work of Christian missionaries, but by the 19th century, it was increasingly accepted as the language of government, of the social elite, and of the national press

50. India – Outer Circle
India has a complex multilingual situation making it difficult to establish the influence of particular Indian languages on the forms use, but because of extended contact, many forms of English may be the result of transfer from, for example, Hindi, Punjabi, Gujarati and a combination of languages.

51. India – Outer Circle
Frequent switching between English and other languages sometimes led to the development of mixed varieties such as Hinglish, a mixture of Hindi and English.
The case of India is similar to many regions in Asia and Africa, where colonization took the shape of subjugation of the population who were not displaced, so English was in direct contact with the native/ indigenous languages and the influence of these substrates is revealed in the new forms of English that develop (New Englishes)

52. India – Outer Circle
Phonological forms of variation: /r/ in Indian English is generally rhotic A noticeable feature is that /t/ and /d/ have ‘retroflex’ pronunciations, where the tongue tip is curled backwards. The sound of /v/ and /w/ were not distinguished.

53. India – Outer Circle Grammatical variation:
Using ‘progressive’ verb forms when these would not occur in other varieties; for example:
I am believing you
She is liking music
(instead of I believe/ she likes)

54. India – Outer Circle
Interrogative constructions often do not invert subject and verb:
Where you are going?
What you would like to buy?
(Instead of Where are you going? / What you like to buy?
 Generalized Isn’t as a question tag:
-They are coming tomorrow, isn’t it?(Instead of aren’t they?)

55. Bislama

56. Bislama – Outer Circle
There is some debate (as per chapter 3) as to whether pidgins and creoles count as varieties of English or as entirely separate languages. So, they are mostly called “English-related varieties” Bislama is spoken in Vanuatu, an archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean, east of Australia. Its original date is placed around 1840 where contact between English traders and the indigenous people of Vanuatu gave rise this new variety. In the space of just fifty years, Bislama became a fully fledged variety, widely spoken in the coastal communities.

57. Bislama – Outer Circle
These varieties that developed between people who had no language in common, were often labeled as ‘broken English,’ corruptions of much, ‘better’ European languages. They were referred to as ‘aberrant’ (Bloomefield).
However because of the fast pace of their development”/‘telescopic’ changes in phonology, lexis and grammar, they are a goldmine for linguistic research.  

58. Bislama – Outer Circle
Although a pidgin may be characterized by simplification &reduction an expanded pidgin – one which begins to be used in more domains, for instance, government and schooling is characterized by elaboration & expansion.
One result is syntactic complexity (im is added at the beginning of verbs that are transitive):
Em i rit=I read/
Em i ritim book= I read a book

59. Bislama – Outer Circle
morphological diversity such as using dual form of the pronoun in addition to singular and plural forms:
mi= I/me
mitufala= the two of us
mifala= we
As with other Englishes worldwide, pidgins and creoles witness a great amount of variation; For example, in Jamaica there is a range of forms running from the broadest creole ‘basilect,’ (mi a nyam= I am eating) all the way to a Jamaican standand ‘acrolect.’(/aI æm i:tin/) which is called [Creole Continum]

60. Bislama – Outer Circle
In terms of lexis, The lexifier language is usually the superstrate, the language of power (in the case of Bislama it is English), for example: wok (work) gobak (go back), toktok (talk), although some of the lexis may originate from the native languages, for example kaikai (for food), while most of the grammatical forms are adopted from the substrates. Pidgins have a relatively small vocabulary, so they often resort to polysemy, where a word adopts multiple meanings, such as gras (to mean anything that grows).

61. Bislama – Outer Circle
To distinguish between the different uses of the word and be more semantically specific, ‘circumlocutions’ are used – the use of many words to describe one thing. For example,
gras bilong bet=grass that grows on the head=hair.
Circumlocutions may be shortened; for example, mamblomi= ma bilong mi= man belong me, or my husband.

62. Bislama – Outer Circle
In terms of phonology: Pidgins and creoles may have fewer sounds, and usually do not teach the children sounds which are ‘unusual’ in the world’s languages; this can be limited to five or seven vowels plus a number of nasal sounds; Example: finis instead of ‘finish’ and lanis instead of ‘lunch’

63. Bislama – Outer Circle
Another feature common to pidgins and creoles is a CV (consonant vowel) syllable,
syllable with only a vowel at the beginning of a word may be omitted; e.g. Merican instead of “American,”
vowels may be inserted between consonants, epenthesis, e.g.
sitirit= straight;
consonant clusters may be avoided; e.g.
banis =bandage

64. Bislama – Outer Circle
In terms of Grammar: Verb tenses tend to be expressed by additional words rather than by changes to the verb; e.g. I bin kam (bin =simple past marker=he came) I don kam (don=perfect= he has come) Prepositions are multifunctional; e.g. long= ‘from’ or ‘to’ wok

65. European English?? Expanding Circle
English is now used as a lingua franca, EFL, in countries where English doesn’t have an official status. For example, English is now used in Finland, even in situations where all interlocutors speak Finns, the national language. It is also spoken in parts of Asia, such as China and Japan, which are not former British colonies.
English in Finland, for example, practically has a more important status than it has in some countries where it is an official language, although it doesn’t have a legislative status.

66. European English?? Expanding Circle
There is controversy as to whether we can speak of a variety of English for any of the regions of the expanding circle.
Crystal was hopeful about the potential of a general variety of English, ‘Euro-English,’

67. European English?? Expanding Circle
but others, such as Sandra Mollin, argue that the linguistic features described for such a variety are not consistently used across a wide range of domains within European countries. .. some research has noticed that ‘speakers still claim to be orienting to native speaker or ‘international’ norms- which means that some of the features pointed to by Crystal can be viewed as ‘foreigner talk,’ not an established European variety (see features on the right).
Another model is the model of codes witching between English and the local language(s), such as in Japan.

68. European English?? Expanding Circle
It has been noticed, however, that in spite of its growing role in the media and in higher education in Europe (the Netherlands-e.g. in Chapter 4), it has not gained the status of a distinct variety: we don’t talk about Finnish English but rather English in Finland.

69. European English?? Expanding Circle
Crystal identifies characteristics/ features of the variety of English used in Europe, such as (use of syllable-timed rhythm, simplified sentence construction, avoidance of idiom and colloquial vocabulary, slower rate of speech, clearer patterns of articulation)   

70. European English?? Expanding Circle
No claims are made for ‘Japanese English’ similar to ‘Indian English’ but many loanwords are adapted into both English and Japanese, and influences of English are embedded in the everyday language practices of Japan.