Authorization https://store.theartofservice.com/the-authorization-toolkit.html.

Authorization

Authentication Authorization
The process of authorization is distinct from that of authentication. Whereas authentication is the process of verifying that "you are who you say you are", authorization is the process of verifying that "you are permitted to do what you are trying to do". Authorization thus presupposes authentication.

For example, a client showing proper identification credentials to a bank teller is asking to be authenticated that he really is the one whose identification he is showing. A client whose authentication request is approved becomes authorized to access the accounts of that account holder, but no others.

However note that if a stranger tries to access someone else's account with his own identification credentials, the stranger's identification credentials will still be successfully authenticated because they are genuine and not counterfeit, however the stranger will not be successfully authorized to access the account, as the stranger's identification credentials had not been previously set to be eligible to access the account, even if valid (i.e. authentic).

Finally, a set of pre-defined permissions and restrictions for that particular login name is assigned to this user, which completes the final step, authorization.

Even though authorization cannot occur without authentication, the former term is sometimes used to mean the combination of both.

To distinguish "authentication" from the closely related "authorization", the shorthand notations A1 (authentication), A2 (authorization) as well as AuthN / AuthZ (AuthR) or Au / Az are used in some communities.

Normally delegation was considered to be a part of authorization domain. Recently authentication is also used for various type of delegation tasks. Delegation in IT network is also a new but evolving field.

iSCSI - Authorization Because iSCSI aims to consolidate storage for many servers into a single storage array, iSCSI deployments require strategies to prevent unrelated initiators from accessing storage resources

iSCSI - Authorization Typically, iSCSI storage arrays explicitly map initiators to specific target LUNs; an initiator authenticates not to the storage array, but to the specific storage asset it intends to use. However, because the target LUNs for SCSI commands are expressed both in the iSCSI negotiation protocol and in the underlying SCSI protocol, care must be taken to ensure that access control is provided consistently.

Security testing - Authorization
The process of determining that a requester is allowed to receive a service or perform an operation.

Security testing - Authorization
Access control is an example of authorization.

Google Energy - Authorization to buy and sell energy
In February 2010, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission FERC granted Google an authorization to buy and sell energy at market rates.[ Google Energy can now buy and sell energy], on Cnet.com

Capital Planning and Investment Control - National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1996
This Information Technology Management Reform Act was part of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1996, which is organized in five divisions:[ NATIONAL DEFENSE AUTHORIZATION ACT FOR FISCAL YEAR 1996] PUBLIC LAW 104–106—FEB. 10, 1996.

:(1) Division A — Department of Defense Authorizations.
Capital Planning and Investment Control - National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1996 :(1) Division A — Department of Defense Authorizations.

:(3) Division C — Department of Energy National Security Authorizations and Other Authorizations.

:(4) Division D — Federal Acquisition Reform.
Capital Planning and Investment Control - National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1996 :(4) Division D — Federal Acquisition Reform.

This public law was intended to authorize appropriations for fiscal year 1996 for military activities of the Department of Defense, for military construction, and for defense activities of the Department of Energy, to prescribe personnel strengths for such fiscal year for the Armed Forces, to reform acquisition laws and information technology management of the Federal Government, and for other purposes.

IEEE 802.22 - Encryption, authentication, and authorization
Only the Advanced Encryption Standard|AES-Galois/Counter Mode|GCM authenticated encryption cipher algorithm is supported.IEEE § 8.4.1, p. 281

286 IEEE defines a X.509|X.509v3 certificate profile which uses extensions for authenticating and authorization of devices based on information such as device manufacturer, MAC address, and Federal Communications Commission|FCC ID (the Manufacturer/ServiceProvider certificate, the CPE certificate, and the BS certificate, respectively).IEEE § 8.5, pp

This could allow for a type of Vendor lock-in|customer lock-in where the network providers refuse network access to devices that have not been vetted by manufacturers of the network providers' choice (i.e. the device must possess a private key of a X.509 certificate with a chain of trust to a manufacturer certificate authority (CA) that the network provider will accept), not unlike the SIM lock in modern cellular networks and DOCSIS certification testers in cable Internet access|cable networks.

Authorization - In Information Technology
'Authorization' or 'authorisation' is the function of specifying access rights to resources, which is related to information security and computer security in general and to access control in particular

Authorization - Overview
Access control in computer systems and networks relies on access policies. The access control process can be divided into two phases: 1) policy definition phase where access is authorized, and 2) policy enforcement phase where access requests are approved or disapproved. Authorization is thus the function of the policy definition phase which precedes the policy enforcement phase where access requests are approved or disapproved based on the previously defined authorizations.

Authorizations are expressed as access policies in some type of policy definition application, e.g

Anonymous consumers or guests, are consumers that have not been required to authenticate. They often have limited authorization. On a distributed system, it is often desirable to grant access without requiring a unique identity. Familiar examples of access Token coin|tokens include keys and tickets: they grant access without proving identity.

Partially trusted and guests will often have restricted authorization in order to protect resources against improper access and usage

Using Atomic Authorization|atomic authorization is an alternative to per-system authorization management, where a trusted third party securely distributes authorization information.

Authorization - Authorize v authorise
Both spellings are acceptable in UK and AU English. Authorize has entered English via medieval Latin, while authorise comes from old French. Latin auctorizare → French autoriser → English.

Authorization - Public policy
In Policy|public policy, authorization is a feature of trusted systems used for security or social control.

Authorization - Banking
In banking, an Authorization hold|authorization is a hold placed on a customer's account when a purchase is made using a debit card or credit card.

Authorization - Publishing
In publishing, sometimes public lectures and other freely available texts are published without the consent of the author. These are called unauthorized texts. An example is the 'The Theory of Everything|The Theory of Everything: The Origin and Fate of the Universe' , which was collected from Stephen Hawking's lectures and published without his permission as per copyright law.

Instructional Television Fixed Service - Initial FCC authorization
The FCC initially authorized ITFS, in 1963, to operate using a one-way, analog, Line-of-sight propagation|line-of-sight technology

Vehicle Infrastructure Integration - Communications and authorization
While VII is largely being developed as a joint research enterprise involving numerous transport agencies, it is likely initial products will be tailored to individual applications

Vehicle Infrastructure Integration - Communications and authorization
Legislation will be required to set in place access to the VII data and communications between applicable agencies

Required Navigation Performance - Special Aircraft and Aircrew Authorization Required approach
Doc 9905, Required Navigation Performance Authorization Required (RNP AR) procedure Design Manual, approach procedures build upon the performance based NAS concept

RNP approaches include capabilities that require special aircraft and aircrew authorization similar to category II/III ILS operations

* RF leg segments may be used after PFAF (precise final approach fix).
Required Navigation Performance - Special Aircraft and Aircrew Authorization Required approach * RF leg segments may be used after PFAF (precise final approach fix).

* lateral TSE values as low as 0.10 NM on any segment of the approach procedure (initial, intermediate, final or missed).

When conducting an RNP AR approach using a line of minima less than RNP 0.3, no single-point-of-failure can cause the loss of guidance compliant with the RNP value associated with the approach. Typically, the aircraft must have at least dual GNSS sensors. dual flight management systems, dual air data systems, dual autopilots, and a single inertial reference unit.

When conducting an RNP AR approach with a missed approach less than RNP 1.0, no single-point-of-failure can cause the loss of guidance compliant with the RNP value associated with a missed approach procedure. Typically, the aircraft must have at least dual GNSS sensors, dual flight management systems, dual air data systems, dual autopilots, and a single inertial reference unit.

Dormant Commerce Clause - Congressional authorization
The first exception occurs when Congress has legislated on the matter. See Western Southern Life Ins. v. State Board of California, . In this case the Dormant Commerce Clause is no longer dormant and the issue is a Commerce Clause issue, requiring a determination of whether Congress has approved, preempted, or left untouched the state law at issue.

LightSquared - FCC authorization
On March 1, 2001, LightSquared's predecessor, Mobile Satellite Ventures applied to the FCC to use a highly innovative and spectrum-efficient combination of Spot beam|spot-beam satellites and terrestrial base stations to substantially improve coverage, capacity, and reliability of mobile communications without using any additional spectrum.

On January 26, 2011, The Federal Communications Commission granted LightSquared’s Request for Modification of its Authority for an Ancillary Terrestrial Component

The FCC's modification order to allow terrestrial-only devices onto LightSquared's network was filed on November 19, 2010, with comments due on December 2, 2010, and reply comments due on December 9, 2010

Companies that provide global positioning systems, in addition to the United States Air Force, the operator of the GPS#Possible threat|GPS system, opposed the FCC waiver, saying that more time was needed to resolve concerns that LightSquared's service might interfere with their satellite-based offerings. LightSquared has promised to work with GPS providers and give the FCC monthly updates on a resolution to interference concerns.

In October 2011, LightSquared threatened to sue the FCC if its network is not approved.

Of February 14, 2012, the FCC initiated proceedings to vacate LightSquared's Conditional Waiver Order based on the NTIA's conclusion that there was currently no practical way to mitigate potential GPS interference.

Client SMTP Authorization
technical method of authentication

MARID and the Anti-Spam Research Group|ASRG, as defined in detail

'Lightweight MTA Authentication Protocol (LMAP)'

[ ASRG draft].

As of January 3, 2007, all Internet Drafts have expired and the mailing list has been closed down since there had been no traffic for 6 months.

Client SMTP Authorization - Principles of Operation
CSV considers two questions at the start of each

*Does a domain's management authorize this MTA to be sending ?

*Do reputable independent accreditation services consider that domain's policies and practices sufficient for controlling abuse?

CSV answers these questions as follows: to validate an SMTP session from an unknown sending SMTP client using CSV, the receiving SMTP server:

#Queries DNS to confirm the domain name is authorized for use by the IP (#External links|CSA).

#Asks a reputable Accreditation Service if it has a good reputation (#External links|DNA).

#Determines the level of trust to give to the sending SMTP client, based on the results of (3) and (4)

If the level of trust is high enough, process all

delivering or forwarding without the need for

further validation. If the level of trust is too

low, return an error showing the reason for not

trust is in between, document the result in a

If the answers to both of the questions at the top

Mail sources are motivated to make the answers

yes, and it's easy for them to do so (unless their

flow is so toxic that no reputable

'Client SMTP Authorization' (CSA) was a proposed mechanism whereby a domain admin can advertise which mail servers are legitimate originators of mail from his/her domain.

This is done by providing appropriate SRV record|SRV RRs in the DNS infrastructure.

SAP NetWeaver Business Warehouse - Authorizations
There are two authorizations concepts to consider for BI: standard authorizations[ SAP Library: Standard Authorizations] and analysis authorizations.[ SAP Library: Analysis Authorizations]

NSA warrantless surveillance (2001–07) - Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF) resolution
About a week after the September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11 attacks, Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists (AUMF) which authorized the President to use all necessary and appropriate force against those nations, organizations, or persons he determines planned, authorized, committed, or aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001, or harbored such organizations or persons, in order to prevent any future acts of international terrorism against the United States by such nations, organizations or persons.

The administration has argued that the language used in the AUMF implicitly authorized the President to exercise those powers incident to the waging of war, including the collection of enemy intelligence, FISA provisions notwithstanding.

350, a resolution expressing the sense of the Senate that Senate Joint Resolution 23 (107th Congress), as adopted by the Senate on September 14, 2001, and subsequently enacted as the Authorization for Use of Military Force does not authorize warrantless domestic surveillance of United States citizens

Kerberos (protocol) - Client Service Authorization
# When requesting services, the client sends the following two messages to the TGS:

#* Message C: Composed of the TGT from message B and the ID of the requested service.

#* Message D: Authenticator (which is composed of the client ID and the timestamp), encrypted using the Client/TGS Session Key.

# Upon receiving messages C and D, the TGS retrieves message B out of message C. It decrypts message B using the TGS secret key. This gives it the client/TGS session key. Using this key, the TGS decrypts message D (Authenticator) and sends the following two messages to the client:

#* Message E: Client-to-server ticket (which includes the client ID, client network address, validity period and Client/Server Session Key) encrypted using the service's secret key.

Information security policies - Authorization
Authorization to access information and other computing services begins with administrative policies and procedures

The 'non-discretionary' approach consolidates all access control under a centralized administration

Examples of common access control mechanisms in use today include Role-Based Access Control|role-based access control available in many advanced database management systems—simple File system permissions|file permissions provided in the UNIX and Windows Operating Systems, Group Policy Objects provided in Windows network systems, Kerberos (protocol)|Kerberos, RADIUS, TACACS, and the simple access lists used in many Firewall (networking)|firewalls and Router (computing)|routers.

To be effective, policies and other security controls must be enforceable and upheld. Effective policies ensure that people are held 'accountable' for their actions. All failed and successful authentication attempts must be logged, and all access to information must leave some type of audit trail.

Also, 'need-to-know principle' needs to be in affect when talking about access control

Spring Security - Key authorization features
*AspectJ method invocation authorization.

Spring Security - Key authorization features
*HTTP authorization of web request Uniform Resource Locator|URLs using a choice of Apache Ant paths or regular expressions.

Mobile business intelligence - Authorization, Authentication, and Network Security
Authorization refers to the act of specifying access rights to control access of information to users.Authorization|Wikipedia Article - Authorization Authentication refers to the act of establishing or confirming the user as true or authentic.Authentication|Wikipedia Article - Authentication Network security refers to all the provisions and policies adopted by the network administrator to prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of the computer network and network-accessible resources.[ Definition of Network Security] The mobility adds to unique security challenges

Java Authentication and Authorization Service
'Java Authentication and Authorization Service', or 'JAAS', pronounced Jazz, is the Java (programming language)|Java implementation of the standard Pluggable Authentication Module (PAM) information security framework.

JAAS was introduced as an extension library to the Java Platform, Standard Edition 1.3 and was integrated in version 1.4.

The main goal of JAAS is to Separation of concerns|separate the concerns of user authentication so that they may be managed independently. While the former authentication mechanism contained information about where the code originated from and who signed that code, JAAS adds a marker about who runs the code. By extending the verification vectors JAAS extends the security architecture for Java applications that require authentication and authorization modules.

Java Authentication and Authorization Service - Administration
* '*.login.conf': specifies how to plug vendor-supplied login modules into particular applications

* '*.policy': specifies which identities (users or programs) are granted which permissions

For example, an application may have this 'login.conf' file indicating how different authentication mechanisms are to be run to authenticate the user:

Java Authentication and Authorization Service - Application interface
* a representation of identity (Principal (computer security)|Principal) and a set of credentials (Subject (access control)#Computer_security|Subject)

* a login service that will invoke your application Callback (computer programming)|callbacks to ask the user things like username and password. It returns a new Subject

* a service that tests if a Subject was granted a permission by an administrator.

For the security system integrator, JAAS provides interfaces:
Java Authentication and Authorization Service - Security system integration For the security system integrator, JAAS provides interfaces:

* to provide your identity namespace to applications
Java Authentication and Authorization Service - Security system integration * to provide your identity namespace to applications

* to attach credentials to threads (Subject)
Java Authentication and Authorization Service - Security system integration * to attach credentials to threads (Subject)

Java Authentication and Authorization Service - Security system integration
* for developing login modules. Your module invokes Callback (computer programming)|callbacks to query the user, checks their response and generates a Subject.

Java Authentication and Authorization Service - Login Modules
Login modules are primarily concerned with authentication rather than authorization and form a widely used component of JAAS. A login module is required to implement the javax.security.auth.spi.LoginModule interface, which specifies the following methods:

Note: A Subject is the user that is attempting to log in.

* initialize: Code to initialize the login module, usually by storing the parameters passed into appropriate fields of the Class.

* login: Actually check the credentials provided via an Object that implements the javax.security.auth.Callback interface (e.g

* commit: The identity of the subject has been verified, so code in this method sets up the Principal and Groups (roles) for the successfully authenticated subject

* abort: Called if the authentication process itself fails. If this method returns false, then this Login Module is ignored.

* logout: Code that should be executed upon logout (e.g. could remove the Principal from the Subject or could invalidate a web session).

Login modules can provide single sign on (SSO) via a particular SSO protocol/framework (e.g. SAML, OpenID, and SPNEGO), can check for the presence of hardware security tokens (e.g. USB token), e.t.c. In an n-tier application, Login Modules can be present on both the client side and server side.

LoginModule (javax.security.auth.spi.LoginModule)

Login modules are written by implementing this interface; they contain the actual code for authentication. It can use various mechanisms to authenticate user credentials. The code could retrieve a password from a database and compare it to the password supplied to the module.

LoginContext (javax.security.auth.login.LoginContext)

The login context is the core of the JAAS framework which kicks off the authentication process by creating a Subject. As the authentication process proceeds, the subject is populated with various principals and credentials for further processing.

A subject represents a single user, entity or system –in other words, a client– requesting authentication.

A principal represents the face of a subject. It encapsulates features or properties of a subject. A subject can contain multiple principals.

Credentials are nothing but pieces of information regarding the subject in consideration

Java Authentication and Authorization Service - Form Authentication
Form authentication is another commonly used part of JAAS

* Request a protected URL (i.e. secured via a security-constraint element) in web.xml (where the login-config element has specified an authentication method of FORM).

* The server will return a redirect (302) to the security check URL mentioned above along with a cookie containing the session ID (JSESSIONID=...).

* Send the username and password (encoded as form fields) along with the cookie via an HTTP POST to the security check URL.

* If authentication is successful, the server will send a 302 back to the original protected URL.

* Send a GET request to that URL, passing the session ID cookie (preferably assert that the response contains what you would expect from that original URL).

AAA protocol - Authorization
Typical authorization in everyday computer life is, for example, granting read access to a specific file for a specific authenticated user

Chapter 9, Title 11, United States Code - Authorization for filing of municipal bankruptcies
Section 109(c) of the U.S

Chapter 9, Title 11, United States Code - Authorization for filing of municipal bankruptcies
New Jersey, Connecticut, and Kentucky simply give a state appointed official or body the power to approve a filing.[ Municipal Bankruptcy: State Authorization Under the Federal Bankruptcy Code, PLRI]

NLRB election procedures - Obtaining authorization cards
Unions typically use authorization cards, individual forms in which a worker states that he or she wishes to be represented by the union, as evidence of employee support

NLRB election procedures - Obtaining authorization cards
Some union promises, such as a promise to waive union initiation fees for employees who sign a card before a certain date, may also make an authorization card invalid.

State Bar of California - Member fee authorization process
The State Bar of California is one of a small number of integrated bar associations where much of its member fee structure must be ratified annually by both the California State Legislature|legislature and the Governor of California|governor. Without such annual reauthorization, it can charge California lawyers only $77 per year.

In October 1997, Governor Pete Wilson vetoed the fee authorization bill for that year

As a result, the State Bar was forced to lay off 500 of its 700 personnel on June 26, 1998.Harriet Chiang, State Bar Layoffs Mean Slow Complaint Response, San Francisco Chronicle, 26 June 1998, sec

On September 7, 1999, Governor Gray Davis signed a bill that set the annual fee for the State Bar at $395, thus ending the funding crisis. Since then, the State Bar has undertaken several reforms to improve the efficiency of its operations. It also split off the controversial Conference of Delegates into a separate volunteer organization.Don J. DeBenedictis, New group replaces Conference of Delegates, Los Angeles Daily Journal, 16 October 2002

On October 11, 2009, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger vetoed the fee authorization bill for 2010.Sherri M

Aircraft Maintenance Technician - Inspection authorization
Certification and limitations, including renewal requirements, of mechanics with Inspection Authorization is contained in 14 CFR Part 65.

The requirements for obtaining an Inspection authorization is that the AMT must be licensed for a minimum of three years and actively exercising the rights of an AP for the two years prior to the date that the IA examination is to be taken.

Renewal of the IA rating must be done every two years (on odd years) by submitting to the FAA a form showing a minimum of activity in which the IA exercised his or her authority. This activity comprises either annual inspections, major repairs, major alterations, or a minimum of 8 hours of FAA approved training. This activity must be accomplished every 12 months even though the renewal period is every 24 months.

First Transcontinental Railroad - Political authorization and funding
Meanwhile, after years of study, argument, and lobbying by Theodore Judah and others as to where the eastern terminus would be and how construction would be funded, the construction and operation of a transcontinental railroad line was authorized by the Pacific Railroad Acts of 1862 and the even more generous act of 1864,Pacific Railroad Acts [ accessed 25 Mar 2013 during the American Civil War when southern Democratic opposition in the Congress to the central route near the 42nd parallel was absent

On June 21, 1861, the Central Pacific Rail Road of California was incorporated in California

In addition to government bonds, a Right-of-way (railroad)|right-of-way corridor (along with additional lands needed for all sidings, stations, rail yards, maintenance stations,) etc

The massive amount of capital investment (over $100,000,000 in 1860 dollars) needed to build the railroad was obtained by selling government guaranteed bonds (granted per mile of completed track) and railroad company bonds and stock to interested private investors

Most of the engineers and surveyors who figured out how and where to build the railroad on the Union Pacific were usually engineering college and/or United States Military Academy trained Union Army veterans who had learned their railroad trade keeping the trains running and tracks maintained during the American Civil War|U.S

After 1864, the Central Pacific Railroad had the same Federal financial incentives as the Union Pacific Railroad as well as some construction bonds that were earlier granted by the state of California and the city of San Francisco

The Central Pacific RR broke ground on January 8, 1863

The Union Pacific Railroad (UPRR) did not start construction until July 1865, due to the difficulty getting organized and obtaining financial backing and the Civil War's need for workers, rails, ties, steam locomotives and railroad supplies

After the Civil War, competition for railroad supplies to build a new transcontinental railroad while building or rebuilding new railroad nets and repairing and bringing up to date the damaged rail networks in the south initially caused railroad supplies prices to rise

Time was not standardized in the U.S

For maps and railroad pictures of this era shortly after the advent of History of photography|photography see:Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum [ accessed 1 Mar 2013CPRR Railroad Map collection/museum [ accessed 1 May CPRR UPRR Overland Railroad Map [ of the Central Pacific Railroad and its Connections published in the California Mail Bag San Francisco News Letter and California Advertiser, Vol

An 1879 tourist guide to railroad travel gives insights to travel in the late 1880s on the transcontinental railroad—see the eBook: The Pacific TouristWilliams, Henry T.; The Pacific Tourist;published by Adams Bishop, New York, 1881 ed.[ accessed 10 Oct 2013

The California State Railroad Museum at old town Sacramento, California has an extensive bookstore of railroad reading material and a lot of the original and later Union Pacific and Central Pacific locomotives, cars, etc.California State Railroad Museum [ accessed17 Mar 2013

National Air Traffic Controllers Association - FAA Reauthorization Bill
The originally introduced Reauthorization Bill would have forced the FAA back into negotiations with the NATCA and included a 15-month limit to the bargaining, followed by arbitration if no consensus is reached

National Air Traffic Controllers Association - FAA Reauthorization Bill
By the time Reauthorization passed, after 23 short-term extensions, the Parties were already two years into a new three-year contract negotiated in The new law provides for mediation and binding interest arbitration in the event the parties do not reach agreement in future contract negotiations, ensuring that there are never unilaterally imposed terms and conditions of employment ever again.

SCHIP - Reauthorization
A two-year reauthorization bill was signed into law by the President in December 2007 that would merely extend current SCHIP services without expanding any portion of the program

SCHIP - 2009 reauthorization
In the wake of President Barack Obama's inauguration and the Democrats' increased majorities in both houses of Congress, legislative leaders moved quickly to break the political stalemate over SCHIP expansion

Fraud Enforcement and Recovery Act of 2009 - Authorization for additional funding
Section 3 of the Act authorizes additional funding to detect and prosecute fraud at various federal agencies, specifically:

* United States dollar|$165,000,000 to the United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice,

* $30,000,000 each to the United States Postal Inspection Service|Postal Inspection Service and the Office of the Inspector General at the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development [ (HUD/OIG)]

* $20,000,000 to the United States Secret Service|Secret Service
Fraud Enforcement and Recovery Act of Authorization for additional funding * $20,000,000 to the United States Secret Service|Secret Service

* $21,000,000 to the Securities and Exchange Commission
Fraud Enforcement and Recovery Act of Authorization for additional funding * $21,000,000 to the Securities and Exchange Commission

These authorizations are made for the federal fiscal years beginning October 1, 2009 and 2010, after which point they expire, and are in addition to the previously authorized budgets for these agencies.FERA section 3

United States budget process - Authorization and appropriations
In general, funds for federal government programs must be authorized by an authorizing committee through enactment of legislation

The budget resolutions specify funding levels for the United States House Committee on Appropriations|House and United States House Committee on Appropriations|Senate Appropriations Committees and their 12 subcommittees, establishing various budget totals, allocations, entitlements, and may include reconciliation instructions to designated House or Senate committees

A conference committee is typically required to resolve differences between House and Senate appropriation bills. Once a conference bill has passed both chambers of Congress, it is sent to the President, who may sign the bill or veto it. If he signs, the bill becomes law. Otherwise, Congress must pass another bill to avoid a shutdown of at least part of the federal government.

In recent years, Congress has not passed all of the appropriations bills before the start of the fiscal year. Congress may then enact continuing resolutions, that provide for the temporary funding of government operations. Failure to appropriate funds results in a partial government shutdown, such the United States federal government shutdown of 2013|federal government shutdown in October 2013.

In practice, the separation between policy making and funding, and the division between appropriations and authorization activities are imperfect. Authorizations for many programs have long lapsed, yet still receive appropriated amounts. Other programs that are authorized receive no funds at all. In addition, policy language—that is legislative text changing permanent law—is included in appropriation measures.

Yesod (web framework) - Authentication and authorization
See ref. Authentication plugins: OpenID|OpenId, BrowserID|BrowserId, , Google , HashDB, RpxNow.

Yesod (web framework) - Authentication and authorization
:Redirection after authentication.

NASA Authorization Act of 2010
The 'NASA Authorization Act of 2010' is a U.S

NASA Authorization Act of 2010
The act was signed into law by President Obama on October11, A total of $58 billion in funding is called for, spread across three years.

NASA Authorization Act of 2010 - Human spaceflight
In regard to human spaceflight, the law is intended to:

*Couple human spaceflight efforts to national and global needs and challenges.

*Provide a sustainable space exploration program to incorporate new technologies and in-space capabilities.

*Require immediate development of a heavy lift launch vehicle and continued support of a crew exploration vehicle to be capable of supporting missions beyond low earth orbit starting in 2016.

*Support a sound performance and cost framework by maximizing use, where possible, of the workforce, assets, and capabilities of the Space Shuttle, Constellation program, and other NASA programs.

NASA Authorization Act of 2010 - Space technology
The law will invest in space technologies and robotics capabilities that are tied to the overall space exploration framework and support U.S. innovation and competitiveness.

NASA Authorization Act of 2010 - Commercial cargo and crew
*Continue to support commercial cargo development and provide additional funds to meet launch infrastructure requirements and accelerate development activity.

NASA Authorization Act of 2010 - Commercial cargo and crew
*Expand the Commercial Crew Development Program in 2011 for concept development and supporting activities, while requiring a number of studies to ensure effective oversight of the potential initiation of a commercial crew capability procurement program no earlier than 2012.

NASA Authorization Act of 2010 - International Space Station
*Extend the ISS to at least 2020 to support international and commercial collaboration and growth, research, and technology development to maximize the scientific return on the significant investment in the ISS.

*Establish an independent non-profit to work with NASA to fully develop the ISS U.S. segment as a National Laboratory.

*Require an assessment of ISS requirements for parts and equipment needed to ensure its full functionality through 2020.

NASA Authorization Act of 2010 - Shuttle retirement and final launch on need mission
The law authorizes an additional Space Shuttle flight (STS-135), contingent on a safety review, to provide necessary support for the extension of the ISS.

NASA Authorization Act of 2010 - Science and aeronautics
The law protects a balanced portfolio for NASA, including full funding of aeronautics, Earth science and space science.

NASA Authorization Act of 2010 - Education
In regard to education, the law will:

*Support new education initiatives, such as teacher training programs, to reinforce NASA’s role in developing a workforce with strong science, technology, engineering, and mathematics skills.

*Increase the investment in NASA EPSCoR (Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research) and NASA Space Grant program.

NASA Authorization Act of 2010 - Rescoping and revitalizing institutional capabilities
The law requires NASA to examine alternative management models for NASA’s workforce, centers, and capabilities, while enforcing short-term prohibitions on major center displacements and reductions-in-force until the study is completed.

Freedom of Information Act (United States) - The Intelligence Authorization Act of 2002 amending the FOIA In 2002, Congress passed the Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2003, . Within this Omnibus bill|omnibus legislation were amendments to the FOIA (pertaining mainly to intelligence agencies) entitled Prohibition on Compliance with Requests for Information Submitted by Foreign Governments:, , § 312 (to be codified at , ).

In effect, this new language precluded any covered U.S
Freedom of Information Act (United States) - The Intelligence Authorization Act of 2002 amending the FOIA In effect, this new language precluded any covered U.S

Freedom of Information Act (United States) - The Intelligence Authorization Act of 2002 amending the FOIA The agencies affected by this amendment are those that are part of, or contain an element of, the intelligence community

Direct debit - Authorization
A direct debit instruction must in all cases be supported by some sort of authorization for the payee to collect funds from the payer's account. There are generally two methods to set up the authorisation:

One method involves only the payer and the payee, with the payer authorizing the payee to collect amounts due on his or her account

The other method requires the payer to instruct his or her bank to honour direct debit notes from the payee. The payee is then notified that he or she is now authorised to initiate direct debit transfers from the payer. While this is more secure in theory, it can also mean for the payer that it is harder to return debit notes in the case of an error or dispute.

International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme - Application and authorization
To offer the IB Diploma Programme, an institution must go through an application process, and during that period the teachers are trained in the IB. At the end of the application process, IB conducts an authorization visit.

International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme - Application and authorization
Once a school is authorized to offer the IBDP, an annual fee ensures the school ongoing support from the IB, legal authorisation to display the IB logo and access to the Online Curriculum Centre (OCC) and the IB Information System (IBIS). The OCC provides information, resources and support for IB teachers and coordinators. IBIS is a database employed by IB coordinators. Other IB fees also include student registration and individual Diploma subject examination fees.

Authenticate - Authorization
The process of authorization is distinct from that of authentication. Whereas authentication is the process of verifying that you are who you say you are, authorization is the process of verifying that you are permitted to do what you are trying to do. Authorization thus presupposes authentication.

To distinguish authentication from the closely related authorization, the shorthand notations 'A1' (authentication), 'A2' (authorization) as well as 'AuthN' / 'AuthZ' ('AuthR') or 'Au' / 'Az' are used in some communities.

Normally delegation was considered to be a part of authorization domain. Recently authentication is also used for various type of delegation tasks. Delegation in IT|Delegation in IT network is also a new but evolving field.A mechanism for identity delegation at authentication level, N Ahmed, C Jensen - Identity and Privacy in the Internet Age - Springer 2009

Title of Nobility Clause - Congressional authorization
Eisenhower accepted a number of titles and awards pursuant to this authorization after the fall of Nazi Germany, including a knighthood in Denmark|Denmark's highest order of chivalry, the Order of the Elephant.[ American Heraldry's entry on Eisenhower's coat of arms]

Title of Nobility Clause - Congressional authorization
Congress has also consented in advance to the receipt from foreign governments, by officials of the United States government (including military personnel) of a variety of gifts, subject to a variety of conditions, in the Foreign Gifts and Decorations Act, 5 U.S.C

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 1991
The 'Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution' (short title) () or 'Joint Resolution to authorize the use of United States Armed Forces pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 678' (official title), was the United States Congress's January 14, 1991 authorization of the use of U.S. military force in the Gulf War.

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 1991
President Bush said that as Commander-in-chief he did not need Congressional authorization to use military force against Iraq and that his request for a Congressional joint resolution was merely a courtesy to Congress.

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 1991 - Legislative History
'Senate Joint Resolution 2' was approved in the United States Senate on January 12, 1991 by a vote of 52 to 47.

* was sponsored by John Warner (Republican Party (United States)|R) with 34 cosponsors — 29 Republicans and 5 Democrats. (The Democrats were: Howell Heflin, Bennett Johnston Jr.|Bennett Johnston, Joe Lieberman, Chuck Robb, and Richard Shelby).

** Democrats: (18%) of 56 Democratic Senators voted for the resolution: John Breaux, Richard Bryan, Al Gore, Bob Graham, Howell Heflin, Bennett Johnston Jr.|Bennett Johnston, Joe Lieberman, Harry Reid, Chuck Robb, Richard Shelby

*** Alan Cranston was recovering from surgery and did not vote, but would have voted against the resolution.

** Republicans: Chuck Grassley and Mark Hatfield voted against the resolution.

'House Joint Resolution 77' was approved in the United States House of Representatives on January 12, 1991 by a vote of 250 to 183

* was sponsored by Minority leader of the United States House of Representatives|House Minority Leader Robert H

** Democrats: (32%) of 267 Democrats voted for the resolution.

*** Mervyn M. Dymally and Mo Udall were ill and did not vote, but would have voted against the resolution.

** Republicans: Reps. Silvio Conte, Connie Morella, Frank Riggs voted against the resolution.

** Independent: 0-1. Rep. Bernie Sanders (Independent (politician)#United States|I) voted against the resolution.

* House Joint Resolution 77 was then approved by the Senate by unanimous consent.

* House Joint Resolution 77 was signed by President George H. W. Bush on January 14, 1991 and became .

Carl Levin - National Defense Authorization Act 2012
After objections were raised that such detention violates Americans' constitutional rights, Levin agreed to include language (to National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012#Indefinite detention without trial: Section 1021|section 1031, later 1021, of the bill) which exempted American citizens from the requirement for military detention, but not protecting them from indefinite detention

United States National Security Council - Kill authorizations
A secret National Security Council panel may pursue the killing of an individual who has been called a suspected terrorist. In this case, no public record of this decision or any operation to kill the suspect will be made available. No laws govern criteria for killing such suspects, nor mandate the existence of the panel.

National Security Advisor Susan Rice, who has helped codify targeted killing criteria by creating the Disposition Matrix database, has described the Obama Administration targeted killing policy by stating that in order to ensure that our counterterrorism operations involving the use of lethal force are legal, ethical, and wise, President Obama has demanded that we hold ourselves to the highest possible standards and processes.[ John O

It is unknown who has been placed on the kill list; Mark Hosenball, a Reuters reporter, alleges Anwar al-Awlaki was on the list.

On February 4, 2013, NBC published a leaked Department of Justice DOJ White Paper|memo providing a summary of the rationale used to justify targeted killing of US citizens who are senior operational leaders of Al-Qa'ida or associated forces.[ DOJ Whitepaper]

Atomic Authorization 'Atomic authorization' is the act of securing authorization rights independently from the intermediary applications that utilize them and the parties to which they apply. (Retrieved 16 July 2009) More formally, in the field of computer security, 'to atomically authorize' is to define policy that permits access control|access to a specific resource, such that the Authentication|authenticity of such policy may be independently verified without reliance on the computer application|application that enforces the policy or the individuals who utilize the application

Atomic Authorization - Traditional vs. atomic authorization
Because it is secured independently of the application which utilizes it, atomic authorization policy is equivalent in strength to Authentication factor#Strong authentication|strong authentication policy.

Atomic Authorization - Traditional vs. atomic authorization
Any application specific Hardening (computing)|hardening of non-atomic authorization methods increases the complexity of identity management and issuing credentials, but does not further legitimize the authorization decisions that the application makes.

Distinctive Unit Insignia - Authorization
* Paragraph of Army Regulation authorizes the following types of units to wear a distinctive unit insignia:

* Distinctive unit insignia (DUI) of a design approved by The Institute of Heraldry, U.S. Army, are authorized and prescribed for wear on the service uniforms of personnel in the following echelons.

# Numbered group: one design for each TOE numbered group.

# Color-bearing regiments; training support battalions aligned to color-bearing regiments; and separate battalions, fixed type: one design for each regiment and separate TOE battalion.

# U.S. Army service schools established by the Department of the Army: one design for each service school.

# U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command training centers: one design for each training center.

# U.S. Army medical centers: one design for each center.

# U.S. Army medical department activities: one design for each activity.

# U.S. Army hospital centers: one design for each center.

# U.S. Army dental activities (DENTAC): one design for each activity.

# Army National Guard Total Army Service Schools (TASS): one design for all TASS activities.

# U.S. Army Reserve schools: one design for all USAR schools.

## An identifiable command structure.

## A valid justification in terms of unit mission, enhancement of unit morale, and degree of unit permanency.

# Other organizations: one design for each organization, except U.S. Army garrison (active and reserve), meeting the following criteria.

## Organizations not in the categories listed above, which have a DUI by virtue of previous United States Department of the Army|HQDA authority, are permitted to retain that DUI if manufactured and worn by members of the subject organization. In each case, such insignia is authorized for wear only after The Institute of Heraldry, U.S. Army, has determined the propriety, and granted approval of the insignia.

## Units not authorized a DUI in their own right will wear the DUI of the command to which assigned. Those units not authorized a DUI in their own right, and not assigned to a higher echelon that is authorized a DUI, may, with the approval of the Army commander concerned, wear the DUI of the Army area in which located. Personnel participating in the AGR and ROTC simultaneous membership programs will wear the DUI of the commands, units, and agencies to which attached.

## Personnel assigned to a joint command, DOD, or Federal agency will wear the DUI designated for joint or DOD agencies.

# Provisional units. The authorization of a DUI will not be granted for provisional units.

USA PATRIOT Act - Reauthorizations
The second reauthorization act, the USA PATRIOT Act Additional Reauthorizing Amendments Act of 2006, amended the first and was passed in February 2006.

106 However, the change also meant that the defendant was also made to tell the FBI who he (or she) was disclosing the order to—this requirement was removed by the USA PATRIOT Act Additional Reauthorizing Amendments Act.USA PATRIOT and Terrorism Prevention Reauthorization Act of 2005 (U.S

On Saturday, February 27, 2010, President Barack Obama signed into law legislation that would temporarily extend for one year three controversial provisions of the Patriot Act that had been set to expire:The reauthorization of the Patriot Act Feb

Democratic Underground - Obama signs Patriot Act

*Authorize court-approved roving wiretaps that permit surveillance on multiple phones.

*Allow court-approved seizure of records and property in anti-terrorism operations.

*Permit surveillance against a so-called lone wolf, a non-U.S. citizen engaged in terrorism who may not be part of a recognized terrorist group.Sections of the Patriot act that will remain as of Feb

In a vote on February 8, 2011, the House of Representatives considered a further extension of the Act through the end of 2011

On May 26, 2011, Barack Obama|President Barack Obama used an Autopen to sign the PATRIOT Sunsets Extension Act of 2011, a four-year extension of three key provisions in the USA PATRIOT Act while he was in France:roving wiretaps, searches of business records (the library records provision), and conducting surveillance of lone wolves—individuals suspected of terrorist-related activities not linked to terrorist groups

The reauthorization Act also ordered the Attorney General submit a report semi-annually to the House and Senate Judiciary Committees, the House and Senate Intelligence Committees and the House Committee on Financial Services and the Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs on all NSL request made under the Fair Credit Reporting Act.USA PATRIOT and Terrorism Prevention Reauthorization Act of 2005 (U.S

Applicants must detail the total number of electronic surveillances that have been or are being conducted under the authority of the order.USA PATRIOT and Terrorism Prevention Reauthorization Act of 2005 (U.S

and was later amended to prevent a delayed notification if the adverse results consist only of unduly delaying a trial..USA PATRIOT and Terrorism Prevention Reauthorization Act of 2005 (U.S

A sense of Congress was further expressed that victims of terrorism should be entitled to the forfeited assets of terrorists.USA PATRIOT and Terrorism Prevention Reauthorization Act of 2005 (U.S

History of the USA PATRIOT Act - Lead up to reauthorization
By now the sunsets in the Patriot Act were getting closer to expiring. The Bush administration had been campaigning for the reauthorization of the Act for some time, with the President speaking about the Act in his 2004 State of the Union Address, where he said that,

President Bush also strongly urged for the Patriot Act to be reauthorized immediately when he swore in the successor to Attorney General John Ashcroft, Alberto Gonzales

In April 2005, a Senate Judicial Hearing on the Patriot Act was held

President Bush continued to campaign for the reauthorization of the Act

During the testimony on the reauthorization of the Act, Chairman James Sensenbrenner abruptly gavelled the proceedings to a close after Congressional Democrats and their witnesses launched into broad denunciations of the War on Terrorism and the condition of detainees at Guantanamo Bay detention camp|Guantanamo Bay

History of the USA PATRIOT Act - Reauthorization legislative history
In June, the Select Committee on Intelligence met behind closed doors to consider a draft proposal by Pat Roberts (Republican Party (United States)|R-Kansas|KS) which, among other things, would have removed the primary purpose of FISA warrants issued ex parte and in camera to be for foreign intelligence

The committee's proposed legislation was introduced into the House on July 21 as the USA PATRIOT and Terrorism Prevention Reauthorization Act of 2005

Finally, on March 8, President Bush signed the reauthorization Act, declaring that The Patriot Act has served America well, yet we cannot let the fact that America has not been attacked since September the 11th lull us into the illusion that the terrorist threat has disappeared and that the White House would continue to give [military law enforcement, homeland security and intelligence professionals] the tools to get the job done.[ Bush Speaks After Signing Patriot Act] (March 9, 2006)

USA PATRIOT Act, Title X - Sec. 1007
USA PATRIOT Act, Title X - Sec Authorization of funds for DEA police training in South and Central Asia President Bush must provide at least $5 million in 2002 to the Republic of Turkey for drug enforcement and South and East Asia for chemical controls.

Authorization certificate
In computer security, an 'attribute certificate, 'or' 'authorization certificate (AC) is a Digital data|digital document containing attributes associated to the holder by the issuer. When the associated attributes are mainly used for authorization purpose, AC is called 'authorization certificate'. AC is standardized in X.509. RFC 5755 further specifies the usage for authorization purpose in the Internet.

Authorization certificate
While the PKC is issued by a certificate authority|CA and is used as a proof of identity of its holder like a passport, the authorization certificate is issued by an attribute authority|AA and is used to characterize or entitle its holder like a Visa (document)|visa

Authorization certificate - Comparison of attribute and public key certificates
An AC resembles a PKC but contains no public key because an AC verifier is under the control of the AC issuer, and therefore, trusts the issuer directly by having the public key of the issuer preinstalled. This means that once the AC issuer's private key is compromised, the issuer has to generate a new key pair and replaces the old public key in all verifiers under its control with the new one.

The verification of an AC requires the presence of the PKC that is referred as the AC holder in the AC.

For example, an authorization certificate issued for Alice authorizes her to use a particular service

Authorization certificate - Usage
To use a service or a resource that the issuer of an AC controls, a user presents both the PKC and the AC to a part of the service or resource that functions as an AC verifier

For example, a software developer that already has a public key certificate|PKC wants to deploy its software in a computing device employing Digital rights management|DRM like iPad where software can only be run in the device after the software has been approved by the device manufacturer

A user may also need to obtain several ACs from different issuers to use a particular service

'Issuer': the issuer of the certificate.
Authorization certificate - Contents of a typical attribute certificate 'Issuer': the issuer of the certificate.

Authorization certificate - Contents of a typical attribute certificate
'Signature algorithm': the algorithm by which the certificate is signed.

'Attributes': the attributes associated to the certificate holder.
Authorization certificate - Contents of a typical attribute certificate 'Attributes': the attributes associated to the certificate holder.

Authorization certificate - Contents of a typical attribute certificate
'Signature value': the signature of the issuer over the whole data above.

Authorization certificate - Benefits
Using attribute certificate, the service or resource host (network)|host does not need to maintain an access control list that can potentially be large or to always be connected to a network to access a central server like when using Kerberos (protocol)|Kerberos

Violence Against Women Act of 1994 - 2012–2013 legislative battle and reauthorization
The Senate's 2012 re-authorization of VAWA was not brought up for a vote in the House.

In 2013, the question of jurisdiction over offenses in Indian country continued to be at issue over the question of whether defendants who are not tribal members would be treated fairly by tribal courts or afforded constitutional guarantees.

On February 11, 2013, The Senate passed an extension of the Violence Against Women Act by a vote of 78-22

On February 28, 2013, in a 286 to 138 vote, the House passed the Senate's all-inclusive version of the bill

On March 7, 2013, President Obama signed the Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2013.Pub. L. No , 127 Stat. 54 (March 7, 2013).

Enterprise Privacy Authorization Language
'Enterprise Privacy Authorization Language (EPAL)' is a formal language for writing enterprise privacy policies to govern data handling practices in IT systems according to fine-grained positive and negative authorization rights. It has been submitted by IBM to the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) to be considered for recommendation.

President's Surveillance Program - White House Counsel reauthorization
Mueller wrote that he told Card that the failure to have DOJ representation at the congressional briefing and the attempt to have Ashcroft certify the Authorization without going through Comey gave the strong perception that the [White House] was trying to do an end run around the Acting [Attorney General] whom they knew to have serious concerns as to the legality of portions of the program.

Several senior DOJ and FBI officials considered resigning after the Presidential Authorization was signed without DOJ's concurrence

At approximately 1:30 a.m. on March 12, 2004, FBI Director Mueller drafted by hand a letter to withdraw the FBI from participation in the program. Mueller told the DOJ OIG that he planned on having the letter typed and then tendering it, but that based on subsequent events his resignation was not necessary. Later that morning, the President met with Mueller. According to Mueller's notes,

Mueller told the President of his concerns regarding the FBI's continued participation in the program, and that he was considering resigning if the FBI were directed to continue to participate without the concurrence of the Attorney General

The OLC memorandum stated that the Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF) passed by Congress shortly after the attacks of September 11, 2001 gave the President authority to use both domestically and abroad all necessary and appropriate force, including signals intelligence capabilities, to prevent future acts of international terrorism against the United States.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act - Notable Reauthorizations
* Bush's No Child Left Behind Act of 2001

.gov - Authorization For Native Sovereign Nations, the authorization must come from the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010
The 'Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010' (, also known as the '2010 Tax Relief Act'), was passed by the United States Congress on December 16, 2010 and signed into law by President of the United States|President Barack Obama on December 17, 2010.

The Act centers on a temporary, two-year reprieve from the sunset provisions of the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 (EGTRRA) and the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003 (JGTRRA), together known as the Bush tax cuts

The law was also known, during its earlier formulation in the House of Representatives, as the Middle Class Tax Relief Act of 2010

Key aspects of the law include:
Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of Provisions Key aspects of the law include:

Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010 - Provisions
* Extending the EGTRRA 2001 income tax rates for two years. Associated changes in itemized deduction and personal exemption rules are also continued for the same period. The total negative revenue impact of this was estimated at $186 billion.

* Extending the EGTRRA 2001 and JGTRRA 2003 dividends and capital gains rates for two years. The total negative revenue impact of this was estimated at $53 billion.

* Patching the Alternative Minimum Tax to ensure an additional 21 million households will not face a tax increase. This was done by increasing the exemption amount and making other targeted changes. The negative revenue impact of this measure was estimated at $136 billion.

** The above three measures are intended to provide relief to more than 100 million middle-class families and prevent an annual tax increase of over $2,000 for the typical family.

* A 13-month Unemployment extension|extension of federal unemployment benefits. The cost of this measure was estimated at $56 billion.

* A temporary, one-year reduction in the Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax|FICA payroll tax. The normal employee rate of 6.2 percent is reduced to 4.2 percent. The rate for self-employed individuals is reduced from 12.4 percent to 10.4 percent. The negative revenue impact of this measure was estimated at $111 billion.

* Extension of the Child Tax Credit refundability threshold established by EGTRRA, ARRA, and other measures. According to the White House, this would benefit 10.5 million lower-income families with 18 million children.

* Extension of ARRA's treatment of the Earned Income Tax Credit for two years. According to the White House, this would benefit 6.5 million working parents with 15 million children.

* Extension of ARRA's American opportunity tax credit for two years, including extension of income limits applied thereto. According to the White House, this would benefit more than 8 million students and their families.

** The above three provisions, as well as some other similar ones, are intended to provide about $40 billion in tax relief for the hardest-hit families and students.

* An extension of the Small Business Jobs and Credit Act of 2010's bonus depreciation allowance through the end of 2011, and an increase in that amount from that act's 50 percent to a full 100 percent. For the year of 2012, it returns to 50 percent. The White House hopes the 100 percent expensing change will result in $50 billion in new investments, thus fueling job creation.

* An extension of Section 179 depreciation deduction maximum amounts and phase-out thresholds through 2012.

** Together, the above two business incentive measures were estimated to have a negative revenue impact of $21 billion.

* Various business tax credits for alternative fuels, such as the Volumetric Ethanol Excise Tax Credit, were also extended. Others extended were credits for biodiesel and renewable diesel, refined coal, manufacture of energy-efficient homes, and properties featuring refueling for alternate vehicles. Also finding an extension was the popular domestic Nonbusiness Energy Property Tax Credit, but with some limitations.

* Estate tax adjustment. EGTRRA had gradually reduced Estate tax in the United States|estate tax rates until there was none in After sunsetting, the Clinton-era rate of 55 percent with a $1 million exclusion was due to return for The compromise package sets for two years a rate of 35 percent with an exclusion amount of $5 million. The negative revenue impact of this provision was estimated at $68 billion.

* An extension of the 45G short-line railroad|short line tax credit, also known as the Railroad Track Maintenance Tax Credit, through January 1, This credit had been in place since December 31, 2004 and allowed small railroad companies to deduct up to 50% of investments made in track repair and other qualifying infrastructure investments.

Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of Legislative history The years leading up to 2010 were filled with speculation and political debate about whether the Bush tax cuts should be extended, and if so, how. Rolling back the cuts for the wealthiest taxpayers had been one of the core promises of Barack Obama presidential campaign, 2008|Obama's 2008 presidential campaign.

Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of Legislative history The issue came to a head during the Lame duck (politics)|lame duck session of the 111th Congress

Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of Legislative history The Middle Class Tax Relief Act of 2010 originated in the Democratic caucus within the House in early December 2010, and proposed to extend the Bush tax cuts for middle incomes, meaning those earning under $250,000 for joint filers (and for singles, those earning under $200,000)

Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of Legislative history On December 6, 2010, President Obama announced that a compromise tax package proposal had been reached with the Republican congressional leadership. This centered around a temporary, two-year extension of the Bush tax cuts and included additional provisions designed to promote economic growth. This proposal was identical to what became law.

Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of Legislative history In announcing the agreement, the president said, I'm not willing to let working families across this country become collateral damage for political warfare here in Washington

Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of Legislative history At a press conference the next day, Obama strongly defended the compromise agreement, after numerous congressional Democrats had strongly objected to aspects of it

Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of Legislative history Administration officials such as Vice President Joe Biden worked to convince the wary Democratic members of Congress to accept the plan, notwithstanding a continuation of lower rates for the highest-income taxpayers

Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of Legislative history The bill was opposed some of the most conservative members of the Republican Party as well as by talk radio hosts such as Rush Limbaugh and some groups in the Tea Party movement

Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of Legislative history The cut of the Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax|FICA payroll tax in the agreement was for one year only at a two percent reduction

Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of Legislative history On December 15, the Senate passed the compromise package with an 81–19 vote, with large majorities of both Democrats and Republicans supporting it

Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of Legislative history Obama signed the bill into law on December 17, Much of the Democratic Congressional leadership was absent from the signing ceremony, indicating their ongoing unhappiness with the law. Washington Post writer Dan Balz asserted that Obama's ability to win passage for the law indicated a resilience of the occupant of the Oval Office and a possible course he would take during the next Congress.

Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of Legislative voting breakdown Final House vote:

Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010 - Implementation
The passage of the new law almost at year's end caused a scramble for many parties involved.

Employers had to modify payroll systems to adapt to the new lower amounts for the FICA payroll tax; the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) said that employers had until January 31, 2011, to do so. While companies that specialize in payroll processing could adapt to the change quickly, smaller companies that do their own payrolls could take longer. It was possible that employees would have to wait for up to three paychecks to see the reduction take place.

The IRS said that it needed to reprogram its processing systems for some of the provisions in the law, and that those who like to file their tax returns early would need to wait until at least the middle of February if they itemize deductions or take certain other deductions

Delegation in IT - Delegation at Authorization/Access Control Level
The most common way of ensuring computer security is access control mechanisms provided by operating systems such as UNIX, Linux, Windows, Mac OS, etc.Gollmann, D.: Computer Security 2e. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester (2005)

If the delegation is for very specific rights, also known as fine-grained, such as with Role-based access control (RBAC) delegation, then there is always a risk of under-delegation, i.e., the delegator does not delegate all the necessary permissions to perform a delegated job

If the delegation is achieved by assigning the roles of a delegator to a delegatee then it would not only be a case of over-delegation but also the problem that the delegator has to figure out what roles, in the complex hierarchy of RBAC, are necessary to perform a particular job. These types of problems are not present in identity delegation mechanisms and normally the user interface is simpler.

More details can be found at Role-based access control|RBAC.

Bilingual Education Act - 1994 Reauthorization
The Bilingual Education Act (BEA) reauthorization in 1994 maintained the same tenets as the original BEA, yet additionally introduced new grant categories, set up preference to programs promoting bilingualism, and took into account indigenous languages. Overall, the premise of this addition was to introduce a more systemic reform.

*Priority Given to Bilingualism Programs: Though the Bilingual Education Act legislation did not prescribe specific instructional practices, it did provide a guide to help language minority students. The 1994 reauthorization gave preference to grant applications that developed bilingual proficiency, which Local Education Agencies had the right to develop themselves based on the guidelines of the BEA.

*In the FY Bilingual Education Instructional Service Grants were given out totaling just over $162 million. The largest grants in FY2000 were given to the state of California and New York at approximately $58 million and $22.5 million respectively.

*1994 California Proposition 187 was introduced in order to prevent illegal immigrants from obtaining state provided health care, social services and public education. This was voted on by the public and became a law in November Citizens challenged the constitutionality of this proposition and in March 1998 it was ruled unconstitutional and was taken away. Though the law did no last, it impacted students who were ELL throughout the mid-to-late 1990s.

Protect America Act of 2007 - Authorization power
Under the bill, the director of national intelligence and the attorney general could authorize the surveillance of all communications involving persons outside the United States (U.S

Protect America Act of 2007 - 4
Protect America Act of Removal of FISA Strictures from warrant authorization; warrants not required :But the most striking aspect of the Protect America Act was the notation that any information gathering did not comprise electronic surveillance. This wording had the effect of removing Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act|FISA-related strictures from Protect America Act 2007-related Directives, serving to remove a number of protections for persons targeted, and requirements for persons working for U.S. intelligence agencies.

:* The acquisition does not constitute electronic surveillance
Protect America Act of Removal of FISA Strictures from warrant authorization; warrants not required :* The acquisition does not constitute electronic surveillance

Protect America Act of Removal of FISA Strictures from warrant authorization; warrants not required ::The removal of the term electronic surveillance from any Protect America Act Directive implied that the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court|FISC court approval was no longer required, as Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act|FISA warrants were no longer required

Protect America Act of Removal of FISA Strictures from warrant authorization; warrants not required ::Certifications (in place of FISA warrants) were able to be levied ex post facto, in writing to the Court no more than 72 hours after it was made. The Attorney General was to transmit as soon as possible to the Court a sealed copy of the certification that would remain sealed unless the certification was needed to determine the legality of the acquisition.

Tom Rice - National Defense Authorization Act
Rice voted in support of HR the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year The bill passed the House on June 14, 2013, with a vote of Both parties were somewhat divided on the vote.[ Project Vote Smart, Representative Rice's Voting Records on National Security, accessed October 11, 2013]

Authorization OSID The 'Authorization' Open Service Interface Definition ('OSID') is an O.K.I. specification which provides the means to define who is authorized to do what, when. 'OSIDs' are programmatic interfaces which comprise a Service Oriented Architecture for designing and building software reusability|reusable and interoperable software.

Authorization OSID 'Authorizations' associate Agent OSID|Agents, which represent the user or another actor in the system, with Functions and Qualifiers. One can think of 'Authorization' in terms of a grammar where an Agent OSID|Agent is a noun, Functions are operations or verbs, and Qualifiers are objects of the Instruction (computer science)|operation. An authorization can then be read as a sentence.

Authorization OSID For example, Jeff (an Agent) can write checks (a Function) on the Department account (a Qualifier)

Authorization OSID An Agent in the 'Authorization OSID' is represented using a unique identifier which can be examined via the Agent OSID.

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act - Reauthorization bill
On June 18, 2008, United States Senate|Senator Patrick Leahy of Vermont introduced S.3155 [ a bill to reauthorize the juvenile delinquency prevention programs of the JJDPA through Fiscal year|FY2013, saying, With the reauthorization of this important legislation, we recommit to these important goals but also push the law forward in key ways to better serve our communities and our children

The reauthorization bill makes changes to the original bill in that it, among other things:

* eliminates the exception to detaining status offenders, the Valid Court Order (VCO) exception (a loophole added into the law in 1980).

* keeps kids out of adult jails and prisons (with limited exceptions);

* requires states to reduce racial ethnic disparities;

* creates incentives for the use of programs that research has shown to work best;

* refocuses attention on prevention programs intended to keep children from ever entering the juvenile or criminal justice systems.THOMAS (Library of Congress) Congressional Record: Page S5761

On July 31, 2008, the bill was passed by the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Senate Judiciary Committee with broad bipartisan support.PR Newswire, Juvenile Justice Organizations and Advocates Applaud Senate Judiciary Members on the Approval of Strong JJDPA Legislation, July 31, 2008 However, it was never voted on in the Senate.

The bill was reintroduced in 2009, S. 678, and is cosponsored by Senators Leahy, Kohl, Durbin, Franken, Collins and Snowe. S. 678 was approved by the Senate Judiciary Committee on December 17, Companion legislation, H.R. 6029, was introduced in the House by Representatives Keith Ellison (MN-D) and Robert C. Scott (VA-D).See H.R. 6029, 111th Cong. (2d Sess. 2010).

National, state and local organizations of youth, parents, youth service providers, juvenile justice professionals, detention and corrections officials and other juvenile and adult criminal justice system stakeholders launched a national campaign, Act 4 Juvenile Justice, to reauthorize the Juvenile Justice Delinquency Prevention Act (JJDPA). The Campaign for Youth Justice was one such organization.

Additional information on the JJDPA, background history, recommendations, hearing proceedings, facts and research can be found at:

Information on the Jail Removal and Sight and Sound requirements in the JJDPA can be found at:

Higher Education Act of 1965 - 2008 reauthorization
With the changes proposed in 2003, the actual Higher Education Act was not reauthorized. Instead, many of its sections were renewed, with little radical change. Numerous extensions have followed, with the most recent extension lasting through August 15, The Senate passed an HEA reauthorization bill in July 2007, as did the House of Representatives in February 2008.

On August 14, 2008, the Higher Education Opportunity Act (Public Law ) (HEOA) was enacted

Also included in the 2008 revision of the HEOA were provisions requiring action by U.S

Additionally, the College Cost Reduction and Access Act (CCRA), a budget reconciliation bill signed into law in September 2007, made significant changes to federal financial aid programs included in HEA

The law for the first time also required post-secondary institutions be more transparent about costs and required the nearly 7,000 post-secondary institutions that receive federal financial aid funds (Title IV) to post net price calculators on their websites as well as security and copyright policies by October 29, 2011.

As defined in HEOA, the net price calculator's purpose is ... to help current and prospective students, families, and other consumers estimate the individual net price of an institution of higher education for a student. The [net price] calculator shall be developed in a manner that enables current and prospective students, families, and consumers to determine an estimate of a current or prospective student’s individual net price at a particular institution.

The law defines estimated net price as the difference between an institution's average total Price of Attendance (the sum of tuition and fees, room and board, books and supplies, and other expenses including personal expenses and transportation for a first-time, full-time undergraduate students who receive aid) and the institution's median need- and merit-based grant aid awarded.

Elise Miller, program director for the United States Department of Education's Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), stated the idea behind the requirement: We just want to break down the myth of sticker price and get beyond it. This is to give students some indication that they will not [necessarily] be paying that full price.University Business: Preparing for the Net Price Calculator: Avoid Potential Pitfalls by Taking These Steps Today By Haley Chitty, October 2009

The template was developed based on the suggestions of the IPEDS' Technical Review Panel (TRP), which met on January 27–28, 2009, and included 58 individuals representing federal and state governments, post-secondary institutions from all sectors, association representatives, and template contractors

The TRP faced the difficult challenge of creating one tool that could be used by a wide variety of institutions – from small, for-profit career schools to major research universities – while balancing simplicity for users.

To meet the requirement, post-secondary institutions may choose either a basic template developed by the U.S. Department of Education or an alternate net price calculator that offers at least the minimum elements required by law.

As part of its cost-transparency measures, HEOA of 2008 requires also on the College Navigator Web site a report giving the average institutional net price of attendance for first-time, full-time students who receive financial aid

The HEA has been criticized for establishing statutory pricing of federal student loans based on political considerations rather than pricing based on risk.Michael Simkovic, [ Risk-Based Student Loans] (2013)

Authorization hold In the case of debit cards, authorization holds can fall off the account (thus rendering the balance available again) anywhere from 1–5 days after the transaction date depending on the bank's policy; in the case of credit cards, holds may last as long as 30 days, depending on the issuing bank

Authorization hold Signature-based (non-PIN-based) credit and debit card transactions are a two-step process, consisting of an authorization and a settlement.

Authorization hold When a merchant swipes a customer's credit card, the credit card terminal connects to the merchant's acquirer, or credit card processor, which verifies that the customer's account is valid and that sufficient funds are available to cover the transaction's cost

Authorization hold This is because the merchant has obtained an authorization from the individual's bank by swiping the card through its credit card terminal

Authorization hold However, unless this authorization hold expires without being finalized the user cannot access that part of their account

Authorization hold - Double holds
On occasion, due to negligence or computer error, a merchant may attempt to authorize a card twice, creating a double hold on the cardholder's bank account

Authorization hold - Voided transactions
Some banks allow the removal of a hold from an account by the merchant. However, many banks do not, and a merchant may not have the capability to do so. Thus a merchant may void a transaction, but the hold will remain on the account.For an example of this, see the section entitled I have been charged for my order but it hasn't been despatched at

Authorization hold - Voided transactions
Such requests usually require information such as the cardholder's name, card number, authorization number and transaction amount

Authorization hold - Holds for differing amounts
Another issue that occurs on a regular basis with authorization holds is when the transaction amount changes between when the hold is placed on the account, and when the transaction is settled. This most commonly occurs in situations where the final debit amount is uncertain when the authorization is actually obtained.

For example, if an individual makes a gasoline purchase by swiping their check card or credit card at the gas pump without using their PIN, then the pump has no way of knowing how much gas will be used

There currently is litigation in the State of Florida which alleges that some gas stations do not adequately inform their customers that a certain fixed dollar amount (usually between $75.00 and $100.00) will be requested as a pre-authorization in connection with a customer's purchase of self-service gasoline at the pump using either a checkcard or debit card and that this practice violates various Florida consumer protection and civil laws

Another example can be seen with a restaurant transaction

Some hotels and car rental agencies do not accept Visa (company)|Visa or MasterCard-branded debit cards, as the authorization holds can expire before the transaction is settled

As that rate is generally not known at the time of authorization, for authorization purposes the banks will use an estimated amount based on the exchange rate at the time of authorization.

X Window System core protocol - Authorization
When the client initially establishes a connection with the server, the server can reply by either accepting the connection, refusing it, or requesting authentication. An authentication request contains the name of the authentication method to use. The core protocol does not specify the authentication process, which depends on the kind of authentication used, other than it ends with the server either sending an acceptance or a refusal packet.

X Window System core protocol - Authorization
During the regular interaction between a client and a server, the only requests related to authentication are about the host-based access method

X Window authorization
In the X Window System, Computer program|programs run as X clients, and as such they connect to the X display server, possibly via a computer network. Since the network may be accessible to other User (computing)|users, a method for forbidding access to programs run by users different from the one who is logged in is necessary.

There are five standard access control mechanisms that control whether a client application can connect to an X display server. They can be grouped in three categories:

Additionally, like every other network connection, tunnelling protocol|tunnelling can be used.

X Window authorization - Host-based access
The host-based access method consists in specifying a set of hosts that are authorized to connect to the X display server

X Window authorization - Cookie-based access
The cookie-based authorization methods are based on choosing a magic cookie (an arbitrary piece of data) and passing it to the server when it is started; every client that can prove having knowledge of this cookie is then authorized connection to the server.

These cookies are created by a separate program and stored in the file .Xauthority in the user's home directory, by default

The two systems using this method are MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1 and XDM-AUTHORIZATION-1. In the first method, the client simply sends the cookie when requested to authenticate. In the second method, a secret key is also stored in the .Xauthority file. The client creates a string by concatenating the current time, a transport-dependent identifier, and the cookie, encrypts the resulting string, and sends it to the server.

The 'xauth' application is a utility for accessing the .Xauthority file.

X Window authorization - User-based access
The user-based access methods work by authorizing specific users to connect to the server. When a client establishes a connection to a server, it has to prove being controlled by an authorized user.

X Window authorization - User-based access
The two methods based on authenticating users are SUN-DES-1 and MIT-KERBEROS-5. The first system is based on a mechanism of secure remote procedure call developed in SunOS. The second mechanism is based on both client and server trusting a Kerberos (protocol)|Kerberos server.

X Window authorization - Tunneling
Connection between client and server over a network can be protected using a secure tunnelling protocol such as Transport Layer Security|SSL or Secure Shell|SSH.

Business system planning - Study authorization
The essential first step in BSP is to obtain authorization for the study from management or an interested department. A number of roles must agree on the purpose and range of the study:

** Verifies and approves study results

** Provides financial support

** Documents and implements study (usually longer than eight weeks)

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq
The 'Iraq Resolution' or the 'Iraq War Resolution' (formally the 'Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002',[ Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002] (pdf) , ) is a joint resolution passed by the United States Congress in October 2002 as Act of Congress|Public Law No: , authorizing Iraq War|military action against Iraq.

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - Contents
The resolution cited many factors as justifying the use of military force against Iraq:

* Iraq's noncompliance with the conditions of the United Nations Security Council Resolution 687|1991 ceasefire agreement, including interference with United Nations Special Commission|U.N. weapons inspectors.

* Iraq continuing to possess and develop a significant chemical and biological weapons capability and actively seeking a nuclear weapons capability posed a threat to the national security of the United States and international peace and security in the Persian Gulf region.

* Iraq's Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq|brutal repression of its civilian population.

* Iraq's capability and willingness to use weapons of mass destruction against Iran–Iraq War|other nations and Al-Anfal Campaign|its own people.

* Iraq's hostility towards the United States as demonstrated by the List_of_United_States_Presidential_assassination_attempts#George_H._W._Bush|1993 assassination attempt on former President George H. W. Bush and firing on coalition aircraft enforcing the Iraqi no-fly zones|no-fly zones following the 1991 Gulf War.

* Members of al-Qaeda, an organization bearing responsibility for attacks on the United States, its citizens, and interests, including the attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001, are known to be in Iraq.

* Iraq's continu[ing] to aid and harbor other Terrorism|international terrorist organizations, including anti-United States terrorist organizations.

* Iraq paid bounty (reward)|bounty to families of suicide attack|suicide bombers.

* The Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists|efforts by the Congress and the President to fight terrorists, and those who aided or harbored them.

* The authorization by the United States Constitution|Constitution and the United States Congress|Congress for the President of the United States|President to fight anti-United States terrorism.

* The governments in Turkey, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia feared Saddam and wanted him removed from power.

* Citing the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998, the resolution reiterated that it should be the policy of the United States to remove the Saddam Hussein regime and promote a democracy|democratic replacement.

The resolution supported and encouraged diplomatic efforts by President George W. Bush to strictly enforce through the U.N. Security Council United Nations actions regarding Iraq|all relevant Security Council resolutions regarding Iraq and obtain prompt and decisive action by the Security Council to ensure that Iraq abandons its strategy of delay, evasion, and noncompliance and promptly and strictly complies with all relevant Security Council resolutions regarding Iraq.

The resolution authorized President Bush to use the Military of the United States|Armed Forces of the United States as he determines to be necessary and appropriate in order to defend the national security of the United States against the continuing threat posed by Iraq; and enforce all relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions regarding Iraq.

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - Passage
An authorization by Congress was sought by President George W. Bush soon after his September 12, 2002, statement before the U.N. General Assembly asking for quick action by the Security Council in enforcing the resolutions against Iraq.

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - Passage
Of the legislation introduced by Congress in response to President Bush's Legislation related to the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq], Congressional Record, Library of Congress

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - Passage of the full resolution
Introduced in Congress on October 2, 2002, in conjunction with the Administration's Major Congressional Actions of H.J.Res

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - United States House of Representatives
* 215 (96.4%) of 223 Republican Representatives voted for the resolution.

* 82 (39.2%) of 209 Democratic Representatives voted for the resolution.

* 6 ( 2.7%) of 223 Republican Representatives voted against the resolution: Reps

* 126 (~60.3%) of 209 Democratic Representatives voted against the resolution.

* The only Independent Representative voted against the resolution: Rep. Bernie Sanders|Sanders (Independent (politician)|I-Vermont|VT)

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - The Lee Amendment
: Amendment in the nature of a substitute sought to have the United States work through the United Nations to seek to resolve the matter of ensuring that Iraq is not developing weapons of mass destruction, through mechanisms such as the resumption of weapons inspections, negotiation, enquiry, mediation, regional arrangements, and other peaceful means.

:: Sponsored by Rep. Barbara Lee (D-CA).[ H.AMDT Amendment in the nature of a substitute of H.J.RES.114], 107th Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, Library of Congress,

::: Failed by the Yeas and Nays: [ On Agreeing to the Lee of California Substitute Amendment], 107th Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, Clerk of the House,

Provided expedited consideration for authorization in the latter case.
Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - The Spratt Amendment Provided expedited consideration for authorization in the latter case.

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - The Spratt Amendment
:: Sponsored by Rep. John Spratt (D-SC-5).[ H.AMDT Amendment in the nature of a substitute of H.J.RES.114], 107th Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, Library of Congress,

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - The Spratt Amendment
::: Failed by the Yeas and Nays: [ On Agreeing to the Spratt of South Carolina Substitute Amendment], 107th Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, Clerk of the House,

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - The House Rules Amendment
: An amendment considered as adopted pursuant to the provisions of [ H.RES Providing for the consideration of the joint resolution (H.J.RES.114)], 107th Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, Library of Congress,

:: Sponsored by House Rules.[ H.AMDT Amendment considered as adopted pursuant to the provisions of H.Res.574], 107th Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, Library of Congress,

::: Resolution (H.RES.574) agreed to by voice On Agreeing to Resolve H.RES.574], 107th Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, Library of Congress,

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - The Byrd Amendments
: To provide statutory construction that constitutional authorities remain unaffected and that no additional grant of authority is made to the President not directly related to the existing threat posed by Iraq.

:: Sponsored by Sen. Robert Byrd (D-WV).[ S.AMDT Providing for Statuary Construction in the Consideration of the Joint Resolution (S.J.RES.45)], 107th Congress, U.S. Senate, Library of Congress,

::: Amendment SA 4868 not agreed to by Yea-Nay Vote: [ On Agreeing to the Amendment (Byrd Amdt. No. 4868)], 107th Congress, U.S. Senate, Library of Congress,

: To provide a termination date for the authorization of the use of the Armed Forces of the United States, together with procedures for the extension of such date unless Congress disapproves the extension.

:: Sponsored by Sen. Robert Byrd (D-WV).[ S.AMDT Providing for Congressional Construction in the Consideration of the Joint Resolution (S.J.RES.45)], 107th Congress, U.S. Senate, Library of Congress,

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - The Levin Amendment
: To authorize the use of the United States Armed Forces, pursuant to a new resolution of the United Nations Security Council, to destroy, remove, or render harmless Iraq's weapons of mass destruction, nuclear weapons-usable material, long-range ballistic missiles, and related facilities, and for other purposes.

[ S.AMDT Providing for Congressional Construction in the Consideration of the Joint Resolution (S.J.RES.45)], 107th Congress, U.S. Senate, Library of Congress,

::: Amendment SA 4862 not agreed to by Yea-Nay Vote: [ On Agreeing to the Amendment (Levin Amdt. No. 4862)], 107th Congress, U.S. Senate, Library of Congress,

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - The Durbin Amendment
: To amend the authorization for the use of the Armed Forces to cover an imminent threat posed by Iraq's weapons of mass destruction rather than the continuing threat posed by Iraq.

:: Sponsored by Sen. Dick Durbin (D-IL).[ S.AMDT Providing for Congressional Amendment in the Consideration of the Joint Resolution (S.J.RES.45)], 107th Congress, U.S. Senate, Library of Congress,

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - International law
There have been no findings by any legal tribunal with both legal authority and legal jurisdiction that any laws were violated

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - International law - right of pre-emptive self defense There is no requirement in international law that the United States (or any nation) seek permission to initiate any war of self-defense.Case of the S.S

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - U.S. law
The invasion was reviewed by the US federal courts and it was determined to be legal.

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - U.S. law
In early 2003, the Iraq Resolution was challenged in court to stop the invasion from happening

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - Legal debates - U.N. security council resolutions Debate about the legality of the 2003 invasion of Iraq under international law, centers around ambiguous language in parts of U.N

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - Legal debates - U.N. security council resolutions The position of the U.S. and U.K. is that the invasion was authorized by a series of U.N. resolutions dating back to 1990 and that since the U.N. security council has made no Article 39UN Charter Article 39 Accessed 12/28/2011. finding of illegality that no illegality exists.

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - Legal debates - U.N. security council resolutions Resolution 1441 declared that Iraq was in material breach of the cease-fire under United Nations Security Council Resolution 687|U.N

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - Legal debates - U.N. security council resolutions It remains unclear whether any party other than the Security Council can make the determination that Iraq breached Resolution 1441, as U.N. members commented that it is not up to one member state to interpret and enforce U.N. resolutions for the entire council.US not allowed to speak for the entire council

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - Legal debates - U.N. security council resolutions *[ The United Nations, International Law, and the War in Iraq] Rachel S. Taylor, World Press Review

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - Legal debates - U.N. security council resolutions *[ UN RESOLUTION 1441: COMPELLING SADDAM, RESTRAINING BUSH] Professor Mary Ellen O'Connell, Moritz School of Law, Ohio State University, JURIST, November 21, 2002

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq - Legal debates - U.N. security council resolutions It would be argued that, in light of the emphasis in the Charter on peaceful dispute settlement, Resolution 678 could not be used as an authorization for the use of force after twelve years of cease fire, unless the Security Council says so

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists
The authorization granted the President of the United States|President the authority to use all necessary and appropriate force against those whom he determined planned, authorized, committed or aided the September 11th attacks, or who harbored said persons or groups

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists - House of Representatives
On September 14, 2001 the House passed [ House Joint Resolution 64]

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists - Senate
On September 14, 2001 [ Senate Joint Resolution 23] passed in the Senate by roll call vote. The totals in the Senate were: 98 Ayes, 0 Nays, 2 Present/Not Voting (Senators Larry Craig - R and Jesse Helms - R).

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists - Citations in Law
*The AUMF was unsuccessfully cited by the George W. Bush administration in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, in which the Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the administration's Guantanamo military commission|military commissions at Guantanamo Bay detainment camp|Guantanamo Bay were not competent tribunals as constituted and thus illegal.

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists - Citations in Law
*The AUMF has also been cited by the United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice as authority for engaging in electronic surveillance in ACLU v. NSA without obtaining a warrant of the special Court as required by the constitution.

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists - Use by the DOD
The AUMF has also been cited by a wide variety of US officials as justification for continuing US military actions all over the world. Often the phrases Al-Qaeda and associated forces or affiliated forces have been used by these officials. However, that phrase does not appear in the AUMF.NPR, 4/18/14. Radiolab. [ 60 Words] In collaboration with Buzzfeed. Reporter, Gregory Johnsen.

March of Dimes - SCHIP reauthorization
The March of Dimes has lobbied the United States' Congress to support the continuation of the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) in 2007 and SCHIP is a program that provides health insurance to 11 million low-income children and pregnant women. March of Dimes partnered with the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and the National Association of Children's Hospitals (NACH) on the issue.

Coinage Act of 1792 - Authorization and free coinage
The Act authorized production of the following coins:

*The reverse side of each of the gold and silver coins was to have the figure or representation of an eagle with the inscription UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

The Act defined the proportional value of gold and silver as 15 units of pure silver to 1 unit of pure gold

Under Wikisource:United States Statutes at Large/Volume 1/2nd Congress/1st Session/Chapter 16|Sec.14, any person could bring gold or silver bullion and have it coined free of charge, or later for a small fee, exchange it immediately for an equivalent value of coin. The paragraph summary states: Persons may bring gold and silver bullion, to be coined free of expense;

Quality control measures were implemented in that from each separate mass of gold or silver used to produce coins, three coins were set aside by the treasurer

Section 19 of the Act established a penalty of death for debasing the gold or silver coins authorized by the Act, or embezzlement of the metals for those coins, by officers or employees of the mint; this section of the Act apparently remains in effect and would, in theory, continue to apply in the case of any of the gold or silver coins which shall be struck or coined at the said mint

HealthVault - Authorization
An individual interacts with their HealthVault record through the HealthVault site, or, more typically, through an application that talks to the HealthVault platform

Paris-Madrid race - Problems in getting authorizations
The French government was against the idea of races being held on public streets. After the Paris–Berlin race of 1901, the minister of internal affairs M. Waldeck-Rousseau stated that no other races would be authorized.

The Paris–Madrid was strongly supported by King Alphonse XIII of Spain, and French media suggested that France could not withdraw from the competition, being the country with the most advanced technology in car manufacturing.

Etienne van Zuylen van Nyevelt|Baron de Zuylen, president of the Automobile Club de France|ACF, managed to overcome the opposition of Prime Minister Émile Combes by stating that the roads were indeed public, the public wanted the races, and many local administrators were eager to have a race pass through their towns.

Many French car manufacturers supported the request, employing of over 25 thousand workers and producing 16 million Francs per year of export alone. Since races were necessary to promote the brands, they interceded with the government who finally agreed with the race. The Council of Ministries and the President gave their support to the race on February 17, 1903, while the ACF had been accepting applications since January 15.

Google AJAX APIs - Authentication and authorization
Usage of some of the APIs require authentication and authorization using the OAuth 2.0 protocol.

Google AJAX APIs - Authentication and authorization
OAuth 2.0 is a simple protocol. To start, it is necessary to obtain credentials from the Developers Console. Then the client app can request an access token from the Google Authorization Server, and uses that token for authorization when accessing a Google API service.

E-Rate - Authorization
The Schools and Libraries portion of the Universal Service Fund, more widely known as E-Rate, was authorized as part of the Telecommunications Act of 1996

Merchant account - Authorization fee
The Authorization fee (actually an authorization request fee) is charged each time a transaction is sent to the card-issuing bank to be authorized. The fee applies whether or not the request is approved. Note this is not the same as Transaction fee.

Al Udeid Air Base - Congress Appropriations and Authorizations
From FY2003 to FY2007, Congress Authorization for Expenditure|authorized and Appropriation_bill#United_States|appropriated $126 million for U.S. military construction activities in Qatar.

The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008 (P.L ) authorized $81.7 million in FY2008 spending to build new Air Force and United States special operations forces|Special Operations facilities in Qatar.

The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2009 (P.L ) authorizes $69.6 million in FY2009 spending to build new Air Force and Special Operations facilities.

The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010 (P.L ) authorizes $117 million in FY2010 spending to build new Air Force recreational, dormitory, and other facilities at Al Udeid.

The Administration’s FY2011 military construction request for Qatar was $64.3 million, for Air Force facilities and a National Security Agency warehouse.

The FY2012 request includes $37 million to continue the dormitory and recreation facility project.

California Cadet Corps - Authorization
The California Cadet Corps is referenced under sections 500 through of the California Military and Veterans Code (CMVC)

Central Pacific Railroad - Authorization and construction
Planned by Theodore Judah, the Central Pacific Railroad was authorized by Congress in 1862

In 1885 the Central Pacific Railroad was leased by the Southern Pacific Company. Technically the CPRR remained a corporate entity until 1959, when it was formally merged into Southern Pacific. (It was reorganized in 1899 as the Central Pacific Railway.) The original right-of-way is now controlled by the Union Pacific Railroad|Union Pacific, which purchased Southern Pacific in 1996.

The Union Pacific-Central Pacific (Southern Pacific) mainline followed the historic Overland Trail|Overland Route from Omaha, Nebraska to San Francisco Bay.

Library Services and Construction Act - Reauthorizations
In its thirty year history, the Library Services and Construction Act has undergone numerous reauthorizations

EMV - Online transaction authorization
Transactions go online when an ARQC has been requested

Japanese history textbook controversies - Textbook authorization system
School textbooks in Japan are not written by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology|Ministry of Education

The process of textbook authorization is ongoing and conducted every four years, the results of which are presented to the public the following year.

Critics claim that the government textbook authorization system has been used to reject textbooks that depict Imperial Japan in a negative light

Defenders of the system counter that a book which fails to mention specific negative facts regarding the aggression and atrocities committed by Japan during World War II would also fail the Ministry of Education's approval process

Today there are 30 unique textbooks for , from 5 different publishers, in Japanese primary schools. Additionally, there are 8 unique textbooks for , from 8 different publishers, for junior high schools. In Japanese high schools, the number of available options is much greater, with 50 unique textbook editions available for teaching Japanese, and world history.

Tiffany Cross Medal of Honor - Authorization
On 4 February 1919 Congress, in the same act that created the Navy Cross (United States)|Navy Cross and the Navy Distinguished Service Medal, Congress provided:

! class=unsortable|Image !! Name !! Service !! Date of action !! Combat !!class=unsortable|Action

|Ingram was killed while attempting to release depth charges in the face of an oncoming torpedo. He is one of thirteen recipients receiving the Tiffany Cross from a single Department of the Navy announcement issued 11 November 1920, many of whom present photographic evidence. His action meets the actual conflict criterion.

|United States Navy|Navy, Dental Corps

|Lyle exposed himself to hostile fire to treat a wounded man. He is one of thirteen recipients receiving the Tiffany Cross from a single Department of the Navy announcement issued 11 November 1920, many of whom present photographic evidence. He has a museum display,On display at the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, MD. and meets the actual conflict criterion.

|Sullivan secured a group of live depth charges. He is one of thirteen recipients receiving the Tiffany Cross from a single Department of the Navy announcement issued 11 November 1920, many of whom present photographic evidence. He meets the actual conflict criterion.

|Izac gathered intelligence while a prisoner of war; he then escaped and brought the information to the Allies. There is a photograph of his medal's engraving.

|United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps

|Janson single-handedly attacked and dispersed a machine gun detachment. He meets the actual conflict criterion.

|align=left style=background:#e3d9ff;|

|Osborne was killed while rescuing wounded men from under heavy fire. There is a museum display of his medal.

|United States Navy|Naval Reserve, Medical Corps

|Petty tended the wounded despite artillery and gas attacks, even after his gas mask was rendered useless. There is a photograph of the recipient wearing his Tiffany Cross.

|Cukela single-handedly attacked and captured a German strongpoint. There is a photograph of the recipient wearing his Tiffany Cross.

|align=left style=background:#e3d9ff;|

|Kocak single-handedly silenced a machine gun nest and led a successful attack on a second nest. He meets the actual conflict criterion.

|Boone exposed himself to intense fire in order to treat the wounded and bring in supplies. There is a photograph of the recipient wearing his Tiffany Cross.One of the 13 recipients reported in the New York Times.

|Hammann escued a fellow pilot who had been shot down. He is one of thirteen recipients receiving the Tiffany Cross from a single Department of the Navy announcement issued 11 November 1920, many of whom present photographic evidence. He meets the actual conflict criterion.

|Hayden reached a wounded man, treated him, and carried him to safety despite intense fire. He is one of thirteen recipients receiving the Tiffany Cross from a single Department of the Navy announcement issued 11 November 1920, many of whom present photographic evidence. The is a museum display of his medal,On display at the Legion of Valor Museum, Fresno, CA. and he meets the actual conflict criterion.

|Kelly single-handedly attacked a machine gun nest under an artillery barrage. There is a painting of the recipient wearing his Tiffany Cross, and there is a museum display of his medal.

|Pruitt single-handedly captured two machine guns and forty prisoners. There is a museum display of his medal,On display at the National Museum of the Marine Corps, Quantico, VA. and he meets the actual conflict criterion.

|Madison continued to lead his ship after being severely wounded during a U-boat attack. There is a photograph of the recipient wearing his Tiffany Cross.

|Balch exposed himself to intense fire in order to treat the wounded and establish a dressing station. He is one of thirteen recipients receiving the Tiffany Cross from a single Department of the Navy announcement issued 11 November 1920, many of whom present photographic evidence. He has a museum display of his medal, and he meets the actual conflict criterion.

|Robinson continued to fire his weapon after being severely wounded in an aerial battle against twelve German planes. There is a photograph of his medal's engraving, and museum display of the medal.

|Talbot, with gunner Robert G. Robinson, shot down one plane in an aerial battle against twelve German aircraft. He is one of thirteen recipients receiving the Tiffany Cross from a single Department of the Navy announcement issued 11 November 1920, many of whom present photographic evidence. There is a museum display of his medal, and he meets the actual conflict criterion.

|Byrd's award is for leading what was thought to be the first successful heavier-than-air flight to the North Pole and back. There is a photograph of the recipient receiving his medal.

|Schilt evacuated wounded Marines by plane while under fire. There is a photograph of the recipient wearing his medal.

Ike Skelton National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011
The 'Ike Skelton National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011' (, ), is a law in the United States signed by President Barack Obama on January 7, As a bill it was originally H.R.5136 in the 111th Congress and later co-sponsored by Representative Ike Skelton as H.R and renamed. The overall purpose of the law is to authorize funding for the defense of the United States and its interests abroad, for military construction, and for national security-related energy programs.

American Veterans Disabled for Life Memorial - Authorization extension
With nowhere nearly enough money on hand to begin construction by the legislatively-mandated deadline, the memorial foundation petitioned Congress for an extension, arguing that fundraising would be complete by 2010

American Veterans Disabled for Life Memorial - Authorization extension
S. 824 passed on October 24, 2007, and a day later President George W. Bush signed P.L into law. The law extended the deadline for construction to begin to October 24, 2015.

Lead-Free Toys Act - Budget authorization
The law increases the CPSC budget authorization from $80 million in 2008 to $136 million in It also increases staffing to at least 500 personnel by 2013.Staff writer(s), [ Summary of Major Provisions of H.R. 4040], the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act (CPSIA) of 2008, Consumers Union, (accessed 6 December 2008)

Fossil Cycad National Monument - Deauthorization of the monument
Even before formal approval of the new national monument, all of the visible fossils had been removed. Excavations in 1935 uncovered many new fossils. The site was retained for some years in the expectation that erosion would uncover new fossils. This did not happen, however, and on September 1, 1957 Fossil Cycad National Monument was transferred to the Bureau of Land Management. In 1980, construction of a highway through the site uncovered more fossil cycads.

Torture in the United States - Authorization and methods of torture and abuse
The Post article continues that sensory deprivation, through the use of hoods and spraypainted goggles, sleep deprivation, and selective use of painkillers for at least one captive who was shot in the groin during his apprehension are also used

Based on the Justice Department analyses, Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld later approved in 2003 the use of 24 classified interrogation techniques for use on detainees at Guantanamo Bay, which after use on one prisoner were withdrawn

Manfred Nowak, United Nations Special Rapporteur on torture, said that numerous cases of torture ordered by U.S. officials and perpetrated by U.S. authorities are well documented.

We possess all the evidence which proves that the torture methods used in interrogation by the U.S. government were explicitly ordered by former U.S. defence minister Donald Rumsfeld...Obviously, these orders were given with the highest U.S. authorities' knowledge. [ Call to Try Bush], Inter Press Service, February 2, 2009

Allegations emerged that in the Coalition occupation of Iraq after the second Gulf war, there was extensive use of torture techniques, allegedly supported by American military intelligence agents, in Iraqi jails such as Abu Ghraib and others. In 2004 photos showing humiliation and abuse of prisoners leaked from Abu Ghraib prison, causing a political and media scandal in the U.S. and the whole world.

Condoleezza Rice, Secretary of State ultimately told the CIA the harsher interrogation tactics were acceptable,[ As Bush Adviser, Rice Gave OK to Waterboard Fox News, April 22, 2009]Senate Report: Rice, Cheney OK'd CIA use of waterboarding CNN, April 23, 2009 In 2009 Rice stated, We never tortured anyone

On February 14, 2010, in an appearance on American Broadcasting Company|ABC's This Week (ABC TV series)|This Week, Vice-President Dick Cheney reiterated his support of waterboarding and enhanced interrogation techniques for captured terrorist suspects, saying, I was and remain a strong proponent of our enhanced interrogation program.

Pressed by the BBC in 2010 on his personal view of waterboarding, Presidential Advisor Karl Rove said: “I’m proud that we kept the world safer than it was, by the use of these techniques. They’re appropriate, they’re in conformity with our international requirements and with U.S. law.” March 13, 2010, Karl Rove says water torture is justified - and a source of pride by Giles Whittell

National Defense Authorization Act
The authorization bill determines the agencies responsible for defense, establishes funding levels, and sets the policies under which money will be spent.

National Defense Authorization Act - Current legislation
The current NDAA is the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2014 (; NDAA 2014), a United States federal law which specifies the budget and expenditures of the United States Department of Defense (DOD) for Fiscal Year The law authorized the DOD to spend $607 billion in Fiscal Year On December 26, 2013, President Barack Obama signed the bill into law. This was the 53rd consecutive year that a National Defense Authorization Act has been passed.

National Defense Authorization Act - Current legislation
The Howard P. Buck McKeon National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2015 (H.R. 4435; 113th Congress) is one of the proposed NDAA bills for fiscal year On May 8, 2014, the House Armed Services Committee ordered the bill reported (amended) by a vote of The Committee spent 12 hours debating the bill and voting on hundreds of different amendments before voting to pass it.

National Defense Authorization Act - Notable or controversial NDAA legislation
* John Warner National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2007|National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2007, . This NDAA is formally named after John Warner, a U.S. war veteran and former long-term Senator and Senate Armed Services Committee chairman and U.S. Secretary of the Navy from Virginia.

* National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008, . This NDAA is notable for including a signing statement, one of many that President George W. Bush controversially (see articles) used in attempting to project a strong unitary executive theory — one that he hoped would consolidate and expand Executive Branch power.

* National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010, . This NDAA contains important (see article) hate crimes legislation.

* National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011, . This NDAA is formally named after Ike Skelton, a former long-term Congressman and Chairman of the United States House Committee on Armed Services|House Armed Services Committee from Missouri.

* National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012, . This NDAA contains several controversial sections (see article), the chief being §§ , which affirm provisions authorizing the indefinite military detention of civilians, including U.S. citizens, without habeas corpus or due process, contained in the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists|Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF), .

Authorization to Transport
An 'authorization to transport' [ATT] is a permit issued under the Canadian Firearms Program allowing transportation of restricted and prohibited firearms in Canada

While not a specific requirement under the Firearms Act, ATTs issued for regular trips for up to five years are usually reserved for people who belong to an approved shooting range

In theory, a CFO should issue an ATT to any authorized individual who provides one of the listed reasons, as long as the CFO is satisfied that the transport will not endanger public safety. A CFO can impose a variety of conditions on an ATT, under section 58(1) of the Firearms Act. Exercise of this discretion has led to proposed litigation against the CFO in Ontario.[

In order to transport a restricted or prohibited firearm it must be unloaded. It also must have a functional trigger lock and be kept in a locked case. Ammunition may be carried with the firearm or separately stored, provided it is not loaded in the gun (i.e., magazines may contain ammo, but may not be loaded in the firearm).

Restricted firearms include, but are not limited to, handguns. All handguns are, at a minimum, restricted in Canada. Many handguns (common in the United States) are prohibited firearms in Canada, as their barrel length is 105mm or less, or they are a prohibited caliber.[

Invasion of Canada (1775) - Congressional authorization
The First Continental Congress, meeting in 1774, had previously invited the French-Canadians to join in a second meeting of the Congress to be held in May 1775, in a Letters to the inhabitants of Canada|public letter dated October 26, The Second Continental Congress sent a second such letter in May 1775, but there was no substantive response to either one.#Alden|Alden, pp. 195–198

Invasion of Canada (1775) - Congressional authorization
Following the capture of Ticonderoga, Arnold and Allen noted that it was necessary to hold Ticonderoga as a defense against attempts by the British to militarily divide the colonies, and also noted that Quebec was poorly defended

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