Indian Lore Merit Badge The Shawnee of Ohio

Indian Lore Merit Badge The Shawnee of Ohio
Part 2 Counselor: Mr. John F. Kennedy Phone:

Animals - Large The Shawnee used a variety of animals for food, skins for covering for shelters, clothing and religious ceremonies, decorations and tools. In late fall and winter men went on extended hunting and trapping trips. These could be several days in length or as long as two months. They hunter elk, deer, bison, turkey, cougar and bear. American Bison (Buffalo) Cougar Rocky Mountain Elk White-Tailed Deer American Black Bear

Animals - Small Immediately after the winter hunt, January and February, hunting and trapping began for smaller animals began. They set traps for fox, mink, rabbit, raccoon and beaver. Whatever was killed, it was hung in trees away from other animals. They took what they could carry back to their winter camps. Over the next several days they would return for the rest of the animals. Eastern Grey Squirrel Beaver Eastern Cottontail Rabbit Raccoon Red Fox

Animals - Birds These are a small sample of the many types of birds that would be hunted and trapped. Canada Goose Ring Necked Pheasant Turkey Mallard Ducks Ruffed Grouse Bobwhite Quail Bald Eagle Wood Ducks

Fish & Other Aquatic Animals
Food sources from rivers and steams Beyond hunting, Shawnee men also contributed to the subsistence of their families by fishing and gathering fresh water clams. Unlike hunting which occurred year round, fishing tended to coincide with the spring spawning runs. The men used several different methods of fishing including angling with bird claw fishhooks and bone gorges, netting, spearing by torchlight, shooting with bow and arrows, and wicker traps. Bluegill White Crappie Walleye Rock Bass Northern spiny softshell, northern map turtle, and a midland painted turtle bask in blue hole of the Little Miami River. Clifton Gorge Nature Preserve

Cultivation “Shawnee fields lay south of the villages. Although grouped together, these were actually separate plots of land owned by different Shawnee families. Nevertheless, the women usually farmed the land together and sometimes the men also helped. Every April they planted several different types of corn as well as squash, beans and pumpkins. The women tended the crops during the summer. They also gathered wild plants, fruits, nuts and berries. Some of the food was eaten fresh; other items were dried and stored for use long after the growing season.”

Cultivation - Maize Native Americans started planting and harvesting crops approximately 4,000 years ago after they discovered that the seeds could be harvested, stored, and replanted the following year. They started farming Maize in 200 A.D. but it was not widespread until 800 A.D. when it became a major part of their diet. The early forms of Maize were called Teosinte, the differences between Teosinte and modern day corn plants can be seen in the image to the right. Teosinte was more similar to grass than modern day corn and the cobs were shorter and had fewer kernels on them.

Cultivation - The Three Sisters
“The Three Sisters are the three main agricultural crops of various Native American groups in North America: winter squash, maize (corn), and climbing beans (typically tepary beans or common beans). In one technique known as companion planting, the three crops are planted close together. Flat-topped mounds of soil are built for each cluster of crops. Each mound is about 12” high and 20” wide, and several maize seeds are planted close together in the center of each mound. In parts of the Atlantic Northeast, rotten fish or eels are buried in the mound with the maize seeds, to act as additional fertilizer where the soil is poor. When the maize is 6” tall, beans and squash are planted around the maize, alternating between the two kinds of seeds. The process to develop this agricultural knowledge took place over 5,000-6,500 years. Squash was domesticated first, with maize second and then beans being domesticated. Squash was first domesticated 8,000-10,000 years ago. The three crops benefit from each other. The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the nitrogen to the soil that the other plants use, and the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the sunlight, helping prevent establishment of weeds. The squash leaves also act as a "living mulch", creating a microclimate to retain moisture in the soil, and the prickly hairs of the vine deter pests. Maize lacks the amino acids lysine and tryptophan, which the human body needs to make proteins and niacin, but beans contain both and therefore maize and beans together provide a balanced diet.”

Food Gathered “While many of their men were away on long hunts during the winter, women made maple sugar. They collected tree sap, boiled it in large kettles, and poured it into containers to cool and harden.” “Shawnee women in the East tapped maple trees in spring for their sap. Further west they drew hickory sap from hickory trees.” “They collected and preserved wild plants, especially berries and nuts. Some plants, such as onions, were dried and used for seasoning meat. Salt, which was gathers from salt springs called licks, was used, too. To add special flavor to food, women often cooked over different kinds of woods. Hickory, maple and wild cherry were among their favorites.” Hickory nuts in a bark basket Maple sugar in a bark basket Pawpaw Wild apples (best if cooked)

Food Gathered “The historic Eastern Native Peoples employed cooking and food preserving technologies that suited their lifestyles well. Part of this know-how was the ability to preserve berries. This was usually accomplished by dehydration. Berries said to have been consumed included blackberries, raspberries, cranberries, blueberries, huckleberries, mulberries, sumac berries, elderberries, strawberries, and shadbush berries (aka service berries or june berries). Some berries were probably strung and suspended from the rafters of the home to dry (cranberries being a prime candidate), others may have been hung to dry on their cut branches (as noted to be done with blackberries by the Iroquois), but the usual method was to lay the berries out on reed mats, birch bark, or in wide baskets in direct sunlight where they could quickly dehydrate. While this could take place on the ground, the inherent danger of ground bugs, village dogs, and sweet tooth toddlers probably made doing such difficult. Grill style drying racks and raised platforms were a much more secure place for this job. Village fires that generated smoke around the drying areas probably also helped to discouraged thieving birds. But fires could offer the drying process more than just traces of smoke in the atmosphere; smoke was used as a tool of preservation for many foods.” Wild strawberries, blue berries and wild grapes in reed and bark baskets By Jessica Diemer-Eaton Dried berries Hickory nuts ground to meal

Food Gathered Baskets of all sorts were used to gather and store foods along with hollow gourds. Pottery was also used for storage but also cooking. Dried pumpkin slices were useful when traveling

Cooking “THE ETERNAL COOKING MEAL
Among the Eastern Woodland Peoples it was common to always have a large container of food on or near the lodge fire. In the North East this container was usually a very large calabash (gourd) or wood bowl kept simmering via hot stones and full of some kind of food stew. This was typically a stew of meat or fish with vegetables. When one was obliged they would partake of the stew and eat. The stew was retained by always replacing what had been taken. For example if a piece of meat or fish was removed a piece of meat or fish was added. If stock was removed then water and other fillers or thickeners was added and so forth. Among the South East Nations a large earthen clay container of hominy (grits) was always available on the fire in a lodge and some dried or smoked meat or fish was also kept nearby.For many Native American Nations there was no set meal time. Whenever one was hungry they dipped in the containers and had something to eat. This was often referred to as The Eternal Cooking Meal as described by Europeans and later Americans. After White Contact the original containers were replaced with metal trade goods of iron, tin, brass and copper.” Text is by Jamie K Oxendine From the web article “Native American Hone Etiquette”

Cooking

Cooking - Traditional Recipes - Three Sisters Stew
Ingredients: 3 c. white corn 3 c. kidney beans 2 lb. butternut squash, diced 1 onion, cut up 2 cloves garlic - Salt and pepper Directions: Cook the onion until it is golden brown. Add the garlic and cook for one more minute. Add corn, beans and squash. Add enough water to cover everything by about two inches. Simmer everything together for about 45 min. Add salt and pepper to taste.

Cooking - Traditional Recipes - Carrots and Wild Ginger
Ingredients: - Carrots - Ginger - Maple sugar - butter Directions: Butter baking dish. Put layer of sliced carrots in dish. Mix a small amount of ginger in the maple sugar and sprinkle lightly over carrots. Dot with butter. Layer like this until dish is filled. Add just enough water to steam carrots. Bake until the carrots are tender.

Cooking - Traditional Recipes - Shawnee Cakes
Ingredients: - 1 cup white cornmeal - 3/4 teaspoon salt - 1 cup water - 1/2 cup milk - Bacon drippings Directions: In a medium bowl, place cornmeal and salt. In a medium saucepan over high heat, bring water to a rapid boil; remove from heat. With the saucepan in one hand, let the boiling water dribble onto the cornmeal while stirring constantly with the other hand. Then stir the milk into the mixture (it will be fairly thick, but not runny). Generously grease a large, heavy frying pan (use a cast-iron frying pan) with the bacon drippings and heat. When pan is hot, drop the batter by spoonfuls. Flatten the batter with a spatula to a thickness of approximately 1/4 inch. Fry until golden brown, turn, and brown on the other side (adding more bacon drippings as needed). Serve hot with butter, maple syrup, or applesauce. Makes 4 servings.

Cooking - Traditional Recipes - Blue Bread
Ingredients: (8-12 servings) - 1 3/4 cup buttermilk, room temperature - 2 eggs, room temperature - 1 1/2 cup blue cornmeal - 1/4 cup sugar (more or less to taste) - 3/4 teaspoons baking soda - 1/2 teaspoon salt - 4 tablespoons butter Directions: Place a 10 inch cast iron skillet in the oven and heat to 425. In a bowl, beat the buttermilk and eggs together until combined. Add the cornmeal, baking soda, salt, and sugar. Stir until the batter is lumpy but there is no visible dry cornmeal. When the oven has preheated and continued to heat for 5-10 minutes, melt the butter in the bottom of the pan. Swirl the butter around to coat the bottom and the sides. Pour in the batter and return to the oven. Bake until firm in the middle. Remove from the oven and serve warm.

Cooking - Traditional Recipes - Acorn Bread
Ingredients: - 2 cups acorn flour - 2 cups cattail or white flour - 3 teaspoons baking powder - 1/3 cup maple syrup or sugar - 1 egg - 1/2 cup milk - 3 tablespoons olive oil Directions; Bake in pan for 30 minutes or until done at 400 degrees. Using the ingredients given above will produce a sweet, moist, nutty bread. The ingredients can be varied to produce different types of bread or muffins or pancakes, etc. Acorn bread is highly nutritious. It has an energy giving combination of protein, carbohydrates, and fat. “Acorns can easily be processed into nutritious flour. First they must be shelled. A fist sized rock works great as a nutcracker. After I shell them I like to crush the acorn meats into smaller pieces before boiling. This allows the tannic acid to be leached out more quickly. Take the shelled, crushed acorn meats and put them into a pot of already boiling water. As the acorns boil the water will become discolored. When the water is dark brown (every ten minutes or so of boiling), strain out the acorn meats and switch them to another pot of already boiling water. Continue this process until the nutmeats no longer taste bitter. I generally do 3 or 4 water changes. The amount of boiling you do will vary depending on your acorns and your patience. I've made sweet tasting acorn bread with acorn meal that still had some bitterness to it. Experiment.” (Go to the website for more in depth information.) Text is by Ben Fisher From the web article “Acorns and Acorn Bread”

Cooking - Traditional Recipes - Clay Baking Wild Birds
“First you catch the bird. Chop its head off. Gut the bird. Chop its feet off. Wash the inside of the bird clean and rub with salt. Leave feathers on the bird and completely cover the bird with clay. You want at least two inches of clay around the bird. Place birds in embers and cook about one hour. When the clay is removed feathers come off with the skin and the meat is not touched with feathers. The other way is to skin the birds before cooking and wrapping in soaked corn shucks before covering with clay. I prefer the last way. But many men like the feathers left on. Other birds baked in this way are quail, pheasant, grouse, and small chickens.” “PIT OVENS Dig a hole five feet square and deep. Put in the bottom of the pit stones {no flint stones), and build a fire on them until nearly red hot. Wet moss is then put on top one and one half feet thick. Put. wabasi 'piniak and mukwodji 'bik (Indian Turnip)' and any other roots or plants that need to be steamed, on top of the moss. Not quite six bushels. One foot of moss covers the tubers. The stones have to be heated once a day. Remove the moss and tubers start the fire, and repeat from there four days. Then slice and dry those not eaten for use in the future.” Text From Indian Recipes Cookbook - Citizen Band Potawatorni

Cooking - Traditional Recipes - Roast Duck
Ingredients: - Duck - 2 quartered apples - Celery leaves - 1/3 cup maple syrup or sugar - 1 egg - 1/2 cup milk - 3 tablespoons olive oil Directions; Put on roasting rack in roasting pan after you put 2 quartered apples and some celery leaves inside duck. Stick skin all over so some of the fat will drain in cooking. Cook at 325 degrees thirty minutes for each pound. Pour off fat when it accumulates. Turn often to brown evenly. Good with rice and applesauce. Text From Indian Recipes Cookbook - Citizen Band Potawatorni

Cooking - Traditional Recipes - Roasted Rabbit
Ingredients: Serves: 3-4, with sides Prep: 5 minutes Cooking: about a half hour 1 rabbit 2 Tbs. butter 2 Tbs. honey juice from half a lemon more honey for serving Directions: Thread one very long metal skewer (or two shorter ones) through the length of the rabbit. In a small bowl, combine the butter, honey, and lemon juice. Swirl together until combined. Suspend the rabbit over hot coals, and baste with the honey mixture. Turn the rabbit periodically to expose all sides to the heat, basting all the while. When all the meat is done, remove from heat, and carve into portions. Serve with the option of additional honey. Cook’s Notes: Because the temperatures of grills and open fires can vary widely, check your rabbit for doneness. Pay special attention to the hind legs, where the muscle is thickest.

Cultivation - Tobacco “Tobacco is believed to be native to tropical America, and it was cultivated and used by the inhabitants of various parts of this continent long before its discovery by Europeans. Tobacco was of ancient origin, probably first found in North America in the southeastern region where tobacco is commercially grown today. The earliest tobacco in eastern North America dates to Middle Woodland contexts as early as the first century B.C. in west-central Illinois. Its more widespread occurrence postdates A.D (Wagner, 1991)” There are many sacred myths as to the origin of tobacco, the Huron Indian myth that is more colorful and imaginative than the others. “In ancient times, when the land was barren and people were starving, the Great Spirit sent a woman to save humanity. As she traveled, everywhere that her right hand touched the earth, potatoes grew, and everywhere that her left hand touched the earth, corn grew. The world became rich and fertile, and so she sat down and rested; when she got up, tobacco grew in that place.” Text is by Ben Rapaport From the web article “Native American Tobacco Cultivation and Use”

Cultivation - Tobacco “Every phase of smoking tobacco among Native Americans seems to have been invested with a ritual significance. It was a plant of enormous ritual potency and enormously variable use, but behind all the variety of uses was the idea that tobacco had the power to put one into a spiritually exalted state that was necessary even for secular enterprises. Depending on the culture and the ceremony, tobacco for the spirits was placed on the ground as an offering to the earth, thrown on water, placed on sacred rocks and trees, or deposited by waterfalls and other striking natural features; it was placed on burning coals and thrown on the fire, as a fumigant; or, it may have been offered by a person inhaling smoke through a pipe or a crudely fashioned cigar or cigarette as a means of communication with the spirits. To ensure good hunting, the Native American smoked on his hunting trips. A certain John Bartram, botanist and keen student of Indian customs, documenting his observations during a trip from Philadelphia to the Oswego River in 1743, wrote: As soon as he had killed a bear, the Indian proceeded to make peace with the animal’s departed spirit. Placing the stem of his lighted pipe in the dead bear’s mouth, the hunter then blew into the pipe bowl. As smoke from the pipe filled the bear’s mouth and throat, the hunter begged the bear’s departed spirit not to resent the injury done to its body and not to thwart the Indian’s good hunting in the future. [National Geographic Magazine, June 1947] “… to feed the sacred fires with tobacco leaves, believing that the spirit of their all-powerful god lay concealed in the rising clouds of smoke. “From this belief sprang the elaborate system of the religious and political rites of the North American Indian, culminating in the pipe of peace and war, the sacred calumet which occupied amongst the tribes a position of peculiar significance, and was the object of profound veneration.” (Hardy, 1934) There were ceremonies at the sowing and harvesting of the tobacco plant, and the embroidered pouches in which the tobacco and the associated pipe were kept, and the pipe itself, were surrounded by a sacred aura.”

Cultivation - Tobacco “Smoking the pipe sealed all contracts. The pipe was an earnest of peace, a token of brotherhood, and it was carried around among friends, allies and former combatants. It also served as a passport. Father Jacques Marquette, the famous Jesuit explorer, received a pipe from his Indian hosts, and it was his security as he traveled among the Great Lakes peoples. The red-garlanded war-pipe, however, was the sign of hostility.” “Another Jesuit missionary, Father de Smet, offered the following regarding the people of this same region:On all great occasions, in their religious and political ceremonies, and at their great feasts, the calumet presides. The savages send its first fruits, or first puffs, to the Great Wakonda, or Master of Life, to the Sun which gives them light, and to the Earth and Water by which they are nourished; then they direct a puff to each point of the compass, begging of heaven and all the elements for favourable winds. (White, 1979)”

Religion “The Shawnee creation myth is similar to other Algonquin creation myths in maintaining that the people who are now the Shawnees originated from a different world- an island balanced on the back of a giant turtle- and traveled to this one. According to Shawnee myth, when the first people were on the island, they could see nothing but water, which they did not know how to cross. They prayed for aid and were miraculously transported across the water. The Shawnees are the only Algonguin tribe whose creation story includes the passage of their ancestors over the sea, and for many years they held an annual sacrifice in thanks of the safe arrival of their ancestors to this country. The Shawnees were also unique among the Alonquin peoples in believing their creator was a woman, who they called "Kokumthena” (Go-gume-THA-na), which means "Our Grandmother”." Kokumthena" is usually depicted as an anthropomorophic female with gray hair whose size ranges from gigantic to very small. According to Shawnee myth, the idea of creation came from the "Supreme Being", who is called ”Mishe Moneto", but the actual work of creation was performed by Kokumthena the "Great Spirit", and she is the most important figure in Shawnee religion.” 3 “Our Grandmother” gave gifts of prophecy and healing. These people are called Shaman. They could be male or female. Shaman also oversaw religious ceremonies. “In addition to creating the world, Kokumthena will end it. Prophets who travel to the afterworld find her weaving a blanket called a skeemotah, but she has a wolf who unravels what she has done. Someday, however, she will complete her blanket, scoop up the virtuous to come live with her, and punish and destroy the wicked.”

Religion “The Supreme Being of all things is “Mishe Moneto”, who rules Yalakuquakumigigi [the universe] and dispenses His blessings and favors to those who earn His good will, just as He brings unspeakable sorrow to those whose conduct merits His displeasure. ”Mishe Monteo" is not to be mistaken for the "Great Spirit", the ruler of destinies, who is subordinate to Him. The "Great Spirit" lives in a home in the sky and, in addition to Shawnee and other Native American languages, she speaks her own non-shawnee language that can only be understood by children under age four- who forget it as soon as they begin to learn Shawnee.” Shawnee were to be accountable to their own conscience for judgment. The "Golden Rule" of the Shawnees was: "Do not kill or injure your neighbor, for it is not him that you injure, you injure yourself. But do good to him, therefore add to his days of happiness as you add to your own. Do not wrong or hate your neighbor, for it is not him that you wrong, you wrong yourself. But love him, for Mishe Moneto loves him also as he loves you." Shawnee were to be accountable to their own conscience for judgment. The "Golden Rule" of the Shawnees was: "Do not kill or injure your neighbor, for it is not him that you injure, you injure yourself. But do good to him, therefore add to his days of happiness as you add to your own. Do not wrong or hate your neighbor, for it is not him that you wrong, you wrong yourself. But love him, for Mishe Moneto loves him also as he loves you." Symbol of Mishe Moneto

Religion “The Great Horned Serpent, which is always portrayed in cartoon style drawings, is a creature which is shared with other eastern tribes. The serpent lived in a lake. One day he wrapped himself around a large buck deer and took its head which he wore as a mask to fool his prey, this event was witnessed by two ravens. Another variation of this legend is that the creator was busy at work making the earth when he let a thought about himself escape. In doing this he gave the serpent an opportunity to harness this power and instill it into himself, making him very powerful. When the creator realized this had happened he reached out toward the serpent and tried to recover this missing power. In doing so he only managed to capture the head of the serpent and separate it from his body. The headless body managed to slither away and return to the lake. Once there the serpent took the head of the deer to replace what he had lost. Shawnee elders say the serpent was killed and some of his flesh was carved off and is kept in the bundles of the five divisions. The flesh is still fresh and contains some energy stolen from the creator. Shawnee are warned to stay away from hollow logs and holes in the ground because the spirit of the serpent may lurk there. Another creature in Shawnee tradition is the Misignwa. The spirit lives in the forest and protects the animals around it. Some northern tribes claim the spirit is what people call Big Foot. The Misignwa watches all hunters and if they are disrespectful or wasteful he will cause them to have an accident as punishment. During the Bread Dance the Shawnee have a man who dresses in a suit of bearskin, wearing a wooden mask and carrying a cane and turtle shell rattle to impersonate Misignwa. This impersonator will seek out children who are disruptive and frighten them, hence teaching them a valuable lesson. Misignwa carvings were found on poles in the village plaza's, in council houses and carved into pipes until the 19th century.

Religion “Shawnee tradition has three figures that control weather. Each of these was created by the Grandmother Spirit and was so instructed not to cause harm to the Shawnee. One of these is Cyclone Person, a female face with braids of hair that cause tornadoes. She is given great respect by the Shawnee for not harming them. The Shawnee are not afraid of these storms. The second weather spirit which is actually four separate spirits is called the four winds. The four winds are often called upon to witness prayers, and they have colors associated with them. The winds were told by Grandmother Spirit to respect all women and not to stare at them. Shawnee women will pull their skirts up to their waist to embarrass the winds, thus causing clouds to retreat. The third spirit and most well known are the Thunderbirds. The Thunderbirds cause storms when they fight with the Great Horned Serpent and other evil creatures. Lightening is caused by blinking their eyes. The Shawnee believe that the Thunderbirds guard the entrance to heaven and are honored by Kispoko during the war dance as the patrons of war.” “The most important object in Shawnee religion was the sacred bundle, called 'mishaami.' Each tribe had its own bundle, which was believed to contain the welfare of not only the tribe but the entire universe. People sometimes had their own personal sacred bundles that protected them and enabled them to cast spells. The rituals, contents and history of the mishaami are considered sacred mysteries and are kept in secrecy even to this day. According to Shawnee legend, all the mishaami were given to the Shawnees by "Kokumthena," who can still control them and will inform a chosen prophet if she desires a change in either the contents of a bundle or a ritual surrounding a bundle. A custodian - always a man. and one of very high moral character - was assigned to the mishaami by the chief. The mishaami were consulted by the custodian whenever the tribe was considering a major move, and they were opened and their contents moved around before events such as battles in order to protect their outcome.”

Religion - Seasons of the Moon
The Shawnee organized their sacred and secular life around the cycle of the year. The annual cycle was divided into two seasons: the summer season during which the "three sisters" - maize (corn), beans and squash were grown, and the winter season when hunting and trapping were the main concerns of life. Within the two seasons, however, was a great veneration for the spirits of the four winds - the four cardinal points - let loose for the Shawnee and other native nations to provide them with the necessities of life.

Religion - Seasons of the Moon
“Shawnee tradition has three figures that control The summer season began about the middle of April. The sap of in the maple trees had begun to flow and sugar had been made, now all the signs of spring were coming to pass. Then the preparations were made for the sacred Spring Bread Dance that inaugurated the beginning of the ceremonial calendar that would continue until about mid-October. Then the Fall Bread Dance served both as a harvest festival and the beginning of the hunting season when family bands dispersed to temporary winter camps for hunting. In late winter, trapping would replace the hunting until it was time once again for the Spring Bread Dance. The division into two seasons was reflected in the roles of men and women in the Bread Dance Festivals. In the Spring, the leading roles were played by the women as befitted their part in planting and growing throughout the summer season. In the Autumn, the men took the leading roles since their occupation as hunters during the long winter moons was the major concern. The sacred Bread Dance Festivals thus brought harmony not only to the cosmos, but to society as men and women and the clans found a new beginning that harkened back to the creation of the world, renewing the covenant with the Creator and giving meaning and substance to life.” “This division into two seasons is seen in the tendency to translate the word for what Europeans called Spring as Summer and the word for Autumn as Winter. When pressed, the Shawnee have often indicated the Spring, Melo'kami, as something like the 'coming' of summer. Early summer would probably be a more appropriate free rendering. Likewise, Takwaaki -- what Europeans might see as 'Autumn' -- might better be expressed as Early Winter. The two terms for Summer and Winter, Pelaawi and Pepooni then refer the fullness of these seasons.” “The Shawnee give great deference to the 'grandfathers' of the four winds who are shown in the four corners of the image. The Creator, shown in the center, handed down these grandfathers to provide mankind with the necessities of life. The circle shows a rough correlation of the moons with the months of the Julian lunar-solar calendar, as well as the words for the moons in the annual cycle of life. The circle with the names of the month might be seen as spinning one way or the other by a half a month or so, depending on weather conditions, the part of the country the Shawnee lived in at the time, or a lack of synchronization between the moons and the seasons.”

Religion - Dances The most popular and traditional ritual for the Shawnee was the expression of dance. The ritual year opened with the Spring Bread Dance and concluded with the Fall Bread Dance. The Dakwanekawe or Bread Dance was an important Shawnee ceremony which was traditionally held in the spring and in the fall. The ceremony was given to the Shawnee by Our Grandmother who sometimes appeared on earth to observe the ceremony and to participate in the singing. In the spring, the role of women in the ceremony was predominant and this ceremony asked for fertility and good crops. In the fall, the men led the dancing and their role as hunters was emphasized. The spring dance asked for an abundant harvest while the fall dance expressed thanksgiving and asked for abundant game. A Green Corn Dance was celebrated by some Shawnee at the beginning of the ritual year as well, being related to the first ripening of the corn and maize in late summer. The event would last 4-12 days and gave thanks to “Our Grandmother: for the harvest. It was also a time that persons were absolved of misconduct, and all injuries except murder were forgiven. “The Buffalo Dance was generally held in late August or early September. The dance was originally given to Tecumseh by the Buffalo, his guardian spirit. Two kettles of corn mush were prepared for the dance as this dish was favored by the buffalo. The ceremony included body painting and eight sets of dances which were performed by men and women. The final element of the dance was a mock battle for the corn mush, which was then eaten. Social dances often followed the ceremony.The Buffalo Dance was conducted outside of the ceremonial grounds used for other ceremonies because it did not come from Our Grandmother.” Green Corn Dance

How to build a Shawnee Wegiwa
From the website: NativeTech: Native American Technology and Art Step 1 Select a level site for your wigwam. Be sure that the ground is not so soft that it will not hold the poles, and also that it does not have bedrock too close to the ground surface. Clear the area of any scrubby vegetation. Draw a circle in the dirt by finding the center point, driving in a stake. Connect a seven foot string to the stake and a small stick to the other end of the string. Draw a circle with a 14 foot diameter (seven foot string length - radius) by keeping the string taught and tracing around the circle with the stick. Mark 16 points around the circle (1-16). A good way to figure out the exact spacing between 16 upright poles around the circle is to use this formula:

Step 2 Make holes in the ground first with a wooden stake and hammer (even a crowbar). Holes should be at least 6 inches deep to a foot deep. Mark the holes with small sticks so you don’t “lose” them. Gather some fresh flexible saplings (at least 25-30); their length depends on how big you want your wigwam to be, in this example 14 feet in diameter and 7 feet high. So your sapling poles should be about feet long. Willow, birch, even sassafras saplings work well. The important thing is that the saplings should be no bigger around at the base than 2 inches, and shouldn’t taper over a 14 foot length to any less than 1 inch in diameter. The saplings should be straight and with few branches. If there are any branches, the branches need to be trimmed off flush with the sapling. It’s a good idea to strip all the bark off the saplings, and your wigwam frame will have a longer life-span. Cut points on the bases of the saplings so they go into the holes easily. Note: you can “pre-bend” the saplings by placing the base of the sapling between a tree base and a large rock… putting your body weight against the middle of the sapling, and listening carefully for any crackling sounds in the wood (which indicates “brash failure” of the wood, a sign that the sapling is about to snap or split. If the sapling breaks, use another one.

Step 3 Plant the first set of eight poles numbered 1-8. Bend them over two at a time so they overlap about two to three feet. Following the diagram bend 1 to meet 2, 3 to meet 4, 5 to meet 6, and 7 to meet 8. Lash the ends of each set of two poles together at two places, about three inches from each end using the method for lashing parallel branches. (Sheer Lashing). Traditionally the poles were lashed together with the inner bark of the basswood tree. If you do not have basswood in your area, you might try a commercial lashing like heavy jute or sisal twine. At the four places where the sets of poles cross each other perpendicularly, lash them with the method used for lashing perpendicular branches. (Square Lashing)

Step 4 Now place poles 9-16 in the holes remaining. These are bent over, following the diagram, 9 to meet 10, 11 to meet 12, 13 to meet 14, and 15 to meet 16. Lash the overlaps in the same way that you lashed the first set of poles, and lash together “every” place where poles cross each other.

Step 5 Using your remaining prepared saplings, you need to fasten hoops around the perimeter of your wigwam frame at three to four places. The hoops really make the structure sturdy. Start with the bottom hoop (about 2 ½ feet up from the base). This first hoop will use two to three saplings to go all the way around, lash the hoop on making sure to leave a “gap” for the door (entrance) to your wigwam. Keeping them about 2 feet apart, lash down the second, third (and fourth hoop near the top if your wigwam needs four hoops to make it sturdy). Your second and third hoops will probably need two saplings to go all the way around. Save your skinniest sapling for the top hoop as it has to make a pretty tight circle. Make sure every crossing of the poles and hoops is lashed.

Step 6 Now focus on any inside “furniture” for your wigwam. You should have a central hearth (about three feet across, or a foot and a half in diameter), which heated the wigwam in cold weather, and was used for cooking in rainy weather. Dish out the hearth to a depth of about 6 inches in the center, creating a basin. Line the hearth with small cobbles or clay, put stones around the hearth to help contain the fire.Usually sleeping platforms went at least half way around the wigwam. You probably want to use fresh sturdy hard wood branches for the platforms, such as oak, maple, or hickory. Begin by building the frame of the sleeping platform, as in the diagram, with a set of “Y” poles (saplings with a Y branch at the top). The Y poles are set into the ground so that the sleeping platform is level with the first hoop (about 2 ½ feet off the ground). Support the front of the platform with additional Y poles about three feet in from the walls of the wigwam. Build the frame of the sleeping platform according to the diagram, being sure to lash the frame securely to the “Y” poles. Then lash 3 foot sticks to the platform structure using a heavy twine. There will be small gaps between the sticks at the perimeter of the platform (take care not to let the sticks project beyond the edge of the wigwam wall) but the sticks should be flush against each other on the interior side of the platform.

Step 7 Now that the inside of your wigwam has been furnished, you need to cover the structure with bark sheets or cattail mats. Bark sheets were often used in the winter, while cattail mats were more often used in the summer. Elm, chestnut, ash, and hickory were often used for bark sheets. (Check local foresters/lumber yards to see if there are any places they have recently cut, they usually discard the bark and often will let you strip some bark off the trees they cut). Start at the bottom, and shingle the bark sheets or cattail mats in three layers. If using mats, you can tie the mats to the second, third and fourth hoops… if you are using bark sheets, you can drill holes and lash pieces to the hoops, but often the weight of the bark alone will hold them in place (sometimes weighting them with rocks here and there. Make sure you leave an opening for the door in the bottom layer and an opening for the smoke hole at the very top.

Step 8 Once your covering is in place, you can place four more bent poles over the bark or mat covering to hold all the shingles in place. If you donﾕt have the materials or manpower to make a cattail or bark covering for the wigwam, use heavy canvas. Canvas was used to cover wigwams starting in the late 1700s. Use a sheet of birch or elm bark, or a cattail mat, to cover the smoke hole (propped up on one side against prevailing winds or rain), and use a cattail mat or hide to cover the door. Often, fine woven bullrush mats (twined and dyed in black and red) lined the interior walls of wigwams Alternative Materials for a Model Use a foamcore, foam insulation board or corkboard for a firm “ground” to build upon. For model poles use thin flexible sticks, as thin as a drinking straw, or basket weaving reeds, etc. These “poles” can be made more flexible by soaking in warm water. For “lashings” use Jute twine (3-ply). This is a fine natural looking string. - For covering, use brown grocery bags cut up into small sheets, simulating sheets of bark.

Common Indian Names Canoe Pow-Woo Potato
4C - Learn in an Indian Language at least 25 Common terms and their meaning Canoe Pow-Woo Potato Wapiti Massagua Pumpkin Chinquapin Hurricane Succotash Pecan Moccasin Tom-Tom Papoose Maize Moose Quinine Skunk Llama Opossum Bison Hogan Wampum Squaw Wahoo Totem Sachem Raccoon Coyote Potlatch Tomato Chipmunk Aztec Tupelo Muskelunge Mugwump Muskeg Cayuse Sagamore Indigo Mohave Chinook Ocelot Aleut Banana Woodchuck Pone Kinni-Kinnick Igloo Yankee Tamarack Condor Squash Hammock Pemmican Homing Kyak Paw-Paw Tomahawk Wigwam Cocoa Terrapin Sequoia Stogie Punk Persimmon Conestoga Umiak Barbecue Mesquite Puccoon Manitou Teton Chinookan Aleutian Tepee Caribou

4D - Show 25 signs in Indian sign language
4D - Show 25 signs in Indian sign language. Include those that will help you ask for water, for food, and where the path or road leads. Indian Sign Language

4D - Show 25 signs in Indian sign language
4D - Show 25 signs in Indian sign language. Include those that will help you ask for water, for food, and where the path or road leads. Indian Sign Language The Indian Sign Language is the world’s most easily learned language because it is elemental, basic, logical, and the signs in general are what should properly be made to illustrate the idea‐‐the language being largely idiomatic‐‐conveying ideas. ･When you beckon with your finger you are saying the word COME. ･When you wave your hand outwards you say GO. ･When you point upwards with your index finger you say UP. ･When you point downwards you say DOWN. ･When you elevate the flat right hand, you say HIGH. ･When you hold it down near the ground, you say LOW. ･All nations of earth have nodded the head for YES. ･Shaken head means NO. ･GOOD means “level with the heart,” and, therefore, if you will swing the right flat hand out in a semi‐circle from the heart towards the right you say the word GOOD. ･BAD means “thrown away”; therefore, the motion of expelling something downwards with the rightﾊhand makes the word BAD. ･When you point your right thumb at your breast, you say ME. ･When you point your right index finger at the person you are with, you say YOU. ･When you point the same finger at someone else in the party, you say HIM or HER. ･When you point the separated first and second fingers of the right hand out in front of the eyes, you say SEE or LOOK. ･When you pass the partly closed right hand downwards past the mouth, you say EAT or FOOD. ･When you elevate the cupped hand near the mouth, you say DRINK; When, waist high, you make as though dipping a handful of something with cupped hand, you say WATER. ･The flat hands passed alternately one beyond the other means WALK. ･The same sign made more rapidly means RUN.･･To incline the head to right, towards the palms of both hands, means SLEEP. ･To pass the flat hand slightly outwards from the chin means SPEAK or TALK. ･To cup the right hand behind the right ear means to LISTEN. ･The right index finger pointed upwards beside the face means MAN, or “the upright one”. ･To pass the slightly hooked fingers of the right hand downwards over the hair means WOMAN, the basic conception being “she combs her hair.” ･DAY means the opening up. NIGHT means the closing over, and the signs are simple and logical. ･The thumb and index finger of right hand held in an incomplete circle and pointed at the sky means SUN. ･The same sign held flat near the waist means MONEY‐‐a coin. ･The same sign with hand laid on the breast means a MEDAL. ･If hand tipped to the month like a cup it means WANT, or “I am thirsty for.” ･The fingers curved and pointing up, held near the ground, naturally means GRASS. ･The same sign, waist high, means BRUSH. ･While one hand held out in front at height of shoulder, fingers all pointing up, means a TREE. ･Both hands held similarly means a FOREST. ･The same two hands held close to the breast means PEOPLE. ･One fist held up out in front of breast means a MOUNTAIN. ･While both fists means a chain of MOUNTAINS. ･Counting is indicated by the fingers, starting with the little finger of right hand.

Indian Place Names 4G - Learn 25 Indian place names. Tell their origins and meanings. Allegheny Fairest River Savannah Grassy Plain Passaic Peace Valley Natchez Hurrying People Pensacola Hairy People Okeechobee Grassy Lake Appalachian Appalachee Indians Appomattox Tobacco Country Alaska Great Country Milwaukee Rich Land Tippecanoe Buffalo Fish Mississinewa Water On A Slope Ottawa Trade Or Exchange Chattanooga Eagles Nest Topeka Potato Country Roanoke Shell Or Shells Chillicthe Town Or Village Toronto Meeting Place Chickamauga River Of Death Tuscaloosa Black Warrior Peoria Place Of Fat Beats Kenosha Long Fish, "Pike" Saginaw Pouring Out At Mouth Omaha Up Stream Chesapeake Salty Pond Cashocton Habitat Of Owls Scioto Hairs In River Mackinac Turtle Island Potomac Burning Pines Tacoma Big Snow Mountain Canada Collection Of Wigwams Saskatchewan Swift River Kokomo Black Walnut Muncie Strong Place Chicago Wild Onions Wabash White, Flat Rocks Kalamazoo Otter's Trail Shawnee Southerners Tecumseh Shooting Star Nantucket Far Away Penobscot Rocky Place Niagara Thundering Water Yosemite Grizzly Bear Tucson Black Base Mankato Green Earth Rearearge High Place Merrimac Swift Stream Suwannee Echo River Walla Walla Many Waters Shenanoah Hillside Stream Suequehanna Pure Water Muskegon Plenty Of Fish Muskingun Moose-Eye River Saratoga Sparkling Place Tallahassee Old Town Keokuk Watchful Fox Kaibab On The Mountain Winamac Mudfish, Catfish Alaska Great Land Alabama Thicket Clearers Arizona Silver Slabs Arkansas Down Stream People Connecticut Upon The Long River Idaho Sunrise, It Is Morning Illinois Men Or Great Men Indiana Land Of The Indians Iowa Drowsy People Kansas People Of The South Wind Kentucky Hunting Ground Dakota Related People Oregon Beautiful Water Massachusetts Great Hill Michigan Great Water Mississippi Father Of Water Missouri Long Canoe People Minnesota Sky Tinted Water Nebraska Flat Water New Mexico Aztec God Mexitili Ohio Beautiful Valley Oklahoma Land Of The Red Man Texas Tejas Or Allies Tennessee From Chief Tannassie Utah Those Who Dwell High Up Wisconsin Where Waters Gather Wyoming Great Plain

American Indian Leaders
4h.) Name five well-known American Indian leaders, either from the past or people of today. Give their tribes or nations. Describe what they did or do now that makes them notable. List of Native American Chiefs and leaders: Crazy Horse: Crazy Horse will always be remembered as one of the great Native Indian warriors who fought to the last. He will always be remembered as a hero in the last battles against the all-conquering Europeans. Sitting Bull: Sitting Bull was a hero, a soldier and one of the best leaders of all time, who lived his life fighting for the rights of his people and died defending them. Sacagawea: Sacagawea was the Native American Woman who served as a guide for the Lewis and Clark expedition. Pocahontas: Pocohontas was a Powhatan Indian who saved Captain John Smithﾕs life, married a colonist, and served as a peace activist between colonists and Native Americans. Tecumseh: Tecumseh was the chief of the Shawnee Tribe and responsible for forming Tecumseh’s Confederacy. This was a vision to unite the tribes East of the Mississippi as an independent nation. Geronimo: Geronimo was the leader of the Apache tribe. His wife and family were killed by Mexican soldiers and sparked is vengeance and resistance against them. Black Hawk: Black Hawk was the leader of a group of Sauk and Fox Indians. He was involved in the War of 1812 and integral to the Black Hawk war. Cochise: Cochise was chief of the Apache Indians covering territory that expanded over New Mexico and Arizona. He maintained peace with Americans for several years until members of his family were killed. Hiawatha: Hiawatha was the leader of either the Onondagas or the Mohawk tribe of Indians. He was an integral part to gathering the tribes as part of the Iroquois Confederacy. Chief Pontiac: Pontiac was chief of the Ottawa Indian tribe. The tribe was allies to the French during the French and Indian war. Later they were involved in Pontiac’s Rebellion. Red Cloud: Chief Red Cloud was leader of the Lakota tribe and a key player in the Red Cloud War. He was known for fighting for the rights of Indian chiefs rather than just fighting the army. Chief Seattle: Chief Seattle was of the Duwamish people and reportedly gave a great speech in 1854 that brought everyone together. He was a large man and a great leader. Chief Two Sticks Chief Tall Bull Chief Spotted Tall Chief Ely Parker Chief Satanta Chief Gall Chief Black Kettle

Shawnee Leaders 4h.) Name five well-known American Indian leaders, either from the past or people of today. Give their tribes or nations. Describe what they did or do now that makes them notable. Shawnee Chief Cornstalk (Hokoleskwa) (ca November 10, 1777) Shawnee Chief Blue Jacket (Weyapiersenwah) (ca. c ) Shawnee Chief Tecumseh (Tecumtha or Tekamthi) (March October 5, 1813) The Prophet (Tenskwautawa) (c.1775-c.1837) Shawnee Chief Blackfish (Cot-ta-wa-ma-go or Mkah-day-way-may-qua) (c ) Shawnee Chief Black Hoof (Catecahassa) (c. 1740–1831)

Shawnee Chief Cornstalk (Hokoleskwa)
“(ca November 10, 1777) was a prominent leader of the Shawnee nation just prior to the American Revolution ( ). His name, Hokoleskwa, translates loosely into "stalk of corn" in English, and is spelled Colesqua in some accounts. Early years Historians believe he may have been born in present-day Pennsylvania, and with his sister, Nonhelema, moved to the Ohio Country, near present-day Chillicothe, when the Shawnee fell back before expanding white settlement. Stories tell of Cornstalk's participation in the French and Indian War ( ), though these are probably apocryphal. His alleged participation in Pontiac's Rebellion ( ) is also unverified, though he did take part in the peace negotiations. Dunmore's War Cornstalk monument located at Logan Elm State Memorial in Pickaway County, Ohio. Cornstalk played a central role in Dunmore's War of After the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix, settlers and land speculators moved into the lands south of the Ohio River in present-day Kentucky. Although the Iroquois had agreed to cede the land, the Shawnee and others had not been present at the Fort Stanwix negotiations. They still claimed Kentucky as their hunting grounds. Clashes soon took place over this. Cornstalk tried unsuccessfully to prevent escalation of the hostilities.Attempting to block a Virginian invasion of the Ohio country, Cornstalk led a force of Shawnee and Mingo warriors at the Battle of Point Pleasant. His attack, although ferociously made, was beaten back by the Virginians. Cornstalk retreated and would reluctantly accept the Ohio River as the boundary of Shawnee lands in the Treaty of Camp Charlotte. Cornstalk's commanding presence often impressed American colonials. A Virginia officer, Col. Benjamin Wilson, wrote of Cornstalk's speech to Lord Dunmore at Camp Charlotte in 1774: "I have heard the first orators in Virginia, Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee, but never have I heard one whose powers of delivery surpassed those of Cornstalk on that occasion.” American Revolution With the American Revolution began, Cornstalk worked to keep his people neutral. He represented the Shawnee at treaty councils at Fort Pitt in 1775 and 1776, the first Indian treaties ever negotiated by the United States. Many Shawnees nevertheless hoped to use British aid to reclaim their lands lost to the settlers. By the winter of 1776, the Shawnee were effectively divided into a neutral faction led by Cornstalk, and militant bands led by men such as Blue Jacket. In the fall of 1777, Cornstalk made a diplomatic visit to Fort Randolph, an American fort at present-day Point Pleasant, seeking as always to maintain his faction's neutrality. Cornstalk was detained by the fort commander, who had decided on his own initiative to take hostage any Shawnees who fell into his hands. When, on November 10, an American militiaman from the fort was killed nearby by unknown Indians, angry soldiers brutally executed Cornstalk, his son Elinipsico, and two other Shawnees. American political and military leaders were alarmed by the murder of Cornstalk; they believed he was their only hope of securing Shawnee neutrality. At the insistence of Patrick Henry, then governor of Virginia, Cornstalk's killers - whom Henry called "vile assassins" - were eventually brought to trial, but since their fellow soldiers would not testify against them, all were acquitted.”

Shawnee Chief Blue Jacket (Weyapiersenwah)
“(c ) Blue Jacket was a war chief of the Shawnee people, known for his militant defense of Shawnee lands in the Ohio Country. Perhaps the pre-eminent American Indian leader in the Northwest Indian War, in which a pantribal confederacy fought several battles with the British and U.S.. Little is known of Blue Jacket's early life. He first appears in written historical records in 1773, when he was already a grown man and a war chief. Blue Jacket participated in Dunmore's War and the American Revolutionary War (allied with the British), always attempting to maintain Shawnee land rights. With the British defeat in the American Revolutionary War, the Shawnee lost valuable assistance in defending the Ohio Country. The struggle continued as white settlement in Ohio escalated, and Blue Jacket was a prominent leader of the resistance. On November 3, 1791, the army of a confederation of Indian tribes, led by Blue Jacket and Miami Chief Little Turtle, defeated an American expedition led by Arthur St. Clair, governor of the Northwest Territory. The engagement, known as the Battle of the Wabash or St. Clair's Defeat, was the crowning achievement of Blue Jacket's military career, and the most severe defeat ever inflicted upon the United States by Native Americans.” “Blue Jacket's triumph was short-lived. The Americans were alarmed by St. Clair's disaster and raised a new professional army, commanded by General Anthony Wayne. On August 20, 1794, Blue Jacket's confederate army clashed with Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, just south of present-day Toledo, Ohio. Blue Jacket's army was defeated, and he was compelled to sign the Treaty of Greenville on August 3, 1795, ceding much of present-day Ohio to the United States.In 1805, Blue Jacket also signed the Treaty of Fort Industry, relinquishing even more of Ohio. In Blue Jacket's final years, he saw the rise to prominence of Tecumseh, who would take up the banner and make the final attempts to reclaim Shawnee lands in the Ohio Country.” Close-up view of Blue Jacket from the painting "The Signing of the Treaty of Greene Ville, 1795" as depicted by Howard Chandler Christy.

Shawnee Chief Blackfish (Cot-ta-wa-ma-go or Mkah-day-way-may-qua)
“(c ), a war chief of the Chillicothe division of the Shawnee tribe. Little is known about him, since he only appears in written historical records during the last three years of his life, primarily because of his interactions with the famous American frontiersmen Daniel Boone and Simon Kenton. When the Shawnees were defeated by Virginia in Dunmore's War in 1774 , the resulting peace treaty made the Ohio River the boundary between western Virginia (what is now Kentucky and West Virginia) and American Indian lands in the Ohio Country. Although this treaty was agreed to by Shawnee leaders such as Cornstalk, Blackfish and a number of other leaders refused to acknowledge the loss of their traditional hunting grounds in Kentucky. Violence along the border escalated with the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in As a result, the Chillicothe Shawnees moved their town on the Scioto River further west to the Little Miami River, near what is now Xenia, Ohio. Encouraged and supplied by British officials in Detroit,Blackfish and others launched raids against American settlers in Kentucky, hoping to drive them out of the region. In revenge for the murder of Cornstalk by American militiamen in November 1777, Blackfish set out on an unexpected winter raid in Kentucky, capturing American frontiersman Daniel Boone and a number of others on the Licking River on February 7, Boone, respected by the Shawnees for his extraordinary hunting skills, was taken back to Chillicothe and adopted into the tribe. The traditional tale is that Boone was adopted by Blackfish himself, although historian John Sugden suggests that Boone was probably adopted by another family. Boone escaped in June 1778 when he learned that Blackfish was launching a siege of the Kentucky settlement of Boonesborough, which commenced in September of that year. The siege of Boonesborough was unsuccessful, and the Kentuckians, led by Colonel John Bowman, counterattacked Chillicothe the following spring. This raid was also unsuccessful, but Blackfish was shot in the leg, a wound which became infected and was eventually fatal.”

Shawnee Chief Tecumseh (Tecumtha or Tekamthi)
“(March October 5, 1813) was a leader of the Shawnee and a large tribal confederacy (known as Tecumseh’s Confederacy which opposed the United States during Tecumseh’s War and became an ally of Britain in the War of 1812. He was born near the Scioto River, near the present-day city of Chillicothe, Ohio. He grew up in the Ohio Country during the American Revolutionary War and the Northwest Indian War, where he was constantly exposed to warfare. With Americans continuing to move west after the British ceded the Ohio Valley to the new United States in 1783, the Shawnee moved farther northwest. In 1808, they settled Prophetstown in present-day Indiana. With a vision of establishing an independent Native American nation east of the Mississippi under British protection, Tecumseh worked to recruit additional tribes to the confederacy from the southern United States. During the War of 1812, Tecumseh's confederacy allied with the British and helped in the capture of Fort Detroit. Prior to the raid, Chief Tecumseh delivered a powerful speech upon a rock that is preserved to this day at Fort Malden. After the U.S. Navy took control of Lake Erie in 1813, the Native Americans and British retreated. American forces caught them at the Battle of Thames, and killed Tecumseh in October With his death, his confederation disintegrated, and the Native Americans had to move west again, yet Tecumseh became an iconic folk hero in American, Aboriginal and Canadian history.” Tecumseh, by Benson Lossing in 1848 based on 1808 drawing.

“The Tomahawk, an American Indian Battle Axe, gets the origin of its name from the Powhatan word, tamahaac. Tecumseh was a Shawnee Chief who led a major resistance against the United States and their invasion of Shawnee lands in the Ohio, Indiana and Illinois Valley. As a young man Tecumseh was a follower of Tsiyu Gansini (Dragging Canoe) during the Tsikama’gi (Chickamauga) wars ( ) and lived near Chattanooga with the Lower Cherokee. The time that he spent fighting under the leadership of Tsiyu Gansini and alongside the young Sequoyah taught him a great deal and set the foundation for his own revolution up north during the war of This Tomahawk was presented to Tecumseh as a gift from Colonel Henry Proctor at Fort Malden in Amherstburg, Ontario. The Shawnee war chief Tecumseh had been good friends with the British General Isaac Brock because of his willingness to prosecute the American Revolutionaries who were pushing their way into Indian Territory. When Brock was killed in 1812, Colonel Proctor took his place. Tecumseh didn’t like him because he lacked Brock’s courage and was constantly second guessing every decision. In order to keep the Shawnee aligned with the British Proctor repeatedly gave them various weapons as gifts. This Tomahawk presented to Tecumseh by Proctor was one of those weapons. On one end was the blade for war and on the other end was a pipe for peace. The axe itself was both a weapon and a peace pipe. The term “Tomahawk Diplomacy” is rooted in this style of Tomahawk with a peace pipe on one end.” Text and images are by Jonathan Rex. See

“David Ross McCord acquired the headdress in the belief that it had been worn by the famous Shawnee Chief Tecumseh, born in 1768 and killed in 1813 at the Battle of Moraviantown. Although we cannot be sure of this attribution, the headdress was no doubt worn by a chief or important Aboriginal leader. This rare headdress, likely dating to the late 18th or early 19th century, is made of the whole headskin of a deer and was likely worn by a chief. The headband portion is decorated with a zigzag applique of porcupine quills dyed with natural pigments. The double-curve motif, finely worked in white porcupine quills on the headband, may represent the Great Tree of Peace in Iroquois cosmology. Eagle and great horned owl feathers are attached to the back of the headdress. The headpiece, as well as the antlers and tips of the feathers, have been daubed in red pigment. The red disk at the front, perhaps symbolizing the sun, is made of stroud, a type of trade wool and the only material of European origin on the headdress. Archaeological evidence from the Eastern Woodlands suggests that the wearing of horned headdresses as symbols of chiefly power goes back thousands of years. In the 18th century, Aboriginal people identified different influential individuals as "chiefs". Many of these men - and sometimes women - were village leaders, an inherited position of responsibility for village affairs. Most Aboriginal nations also had separate chiefs for war and peace. A theatre of fragile alliances, ongoing negotiations and frequent warfare, the complex world of 18th-century politics saw the rise of alliance chiefs, who represented their community or nation to outsiders.” Text and Image from Musee McCord See

The Prophet (Tenskwautawa)
“(c.1775-c.1837), A member of the Shawnee nation, was born in Named Lalawethika (the Rattle), his mother abandoned him in By all accounts, Lalawethika lacked the physical abilities that his other siblings, including his elder brother Tecumseh, enjoyed. His older siblings refused to train him in hunting and fighting. He was so unskilled with a bow and arrow that he blinded himself in his right eye with a wayward arrow. As an adult, he became reliant on the kindness of his fellow tribesmen to feed himself and his family. He also turned to alcohol to forget his problems, quickly becoming dependent upon liquor. Not having the physical abilities to become a warrior, Lalawethika attempted to learn the ways of his village's medicine man. When the man died in 1804, Lalawethika quickly proved unable to meet his people's needs. They remembered the drunken Lalawethika and did not respect his medicinal abilities. He quickly turned back to alcohol to provide himself with solace. In April 1805 while lighting his pipe Lalawethika fell into a deep trance. His family believed that he had died and prepared his body for a funeral. Lalawethika regained consciousness and claimed that the Master of Life, a Shawnee deity, had visited him. According to Lalawethika, the Master of Life told him that the Ohio's American Indians must give up all white customs and products. The Master of Life reportedly viewed the American Indians' dependence on guns, iron cookware, glass beads, and alcohol as the worst possible sins. If they rejected these items and returned to traditional ways, the Master of Life would reward them by driving the white settlers from the American Indians' land. The American Indians must also stop fighting with each other over land and respect their tribal elders. If they followed the Master of Life's message, the American Indians would return to a life filled with happiness. Lalawethika also changed his name to Tenskwatawa. Tenskwatawa means "open door" in Shawnee. If the American Indiansollowed the Master of Life's message as delivered by Tenskwatawa, they would have an open door. Whites called Tenskwatawa "the Prophet.” Using his “Prophet” status, great numbers of Indians flocked to Tecumseh’s leadership and Tenskwatawa’s guidance. When Tecumseh was away he led the indian forces against the US Army led by General William Henry Harrison and was defeated at what was to become known as the Battle of Tippecanoe. Afterwards the indians would not follow him. “He first lived in Canada but eventually returned to Michigan, Indiana, and Ohio, moving from village to village, seeking a following among the Shawnee. In 1826, the Prophet moved with most Ohio and Indiana Shawnee to a reservation in modern-day Kansas. By the end of his life, Tenskwatawa lived in his own village with only his family. The other Shawnee people chose to live in the villages of younger and more prominent leaders. The Prophet died in November While the Prophet once was the catalyst for one of the greatest American Indian alliances in U.S. history, he died a virtually forgotten figure.” He is shown wearing his silver/pewter gorget. This portrait is from the Collection of Thomas L. McKenny and James Hall, now housed in the Library of Congress.

Shawnee Chief Black Hoof (Catecahassa)
“(c. 1740–1831) was the head civil chief of the Shawnee Indians in the Ohio Country of what became the United States. A member of the Mekoche division of the Shawnees, Black Hoof became known as a fierce warrior during the early wars between the Shawnee and Anglo-American colonists. Black Hoof claimed to have been present at the Battle of the Monongahela in 1755, when General Edward Braddock was defeated during the French and Indian War, although there is no contemporary evidence that Shawnees took part in that battle. Little documentary evidence of Black Hoof's life appears in the historical record before As a child he may have been a member of a wandering band of some 400 Shawnees led by Peter Chartier between 1745 and 1748, who founded the community in Kentucky called Eskippakithiki and later moved to Sylacauga, Alabama, eventually settling in Old Shawneetown, Illinois. He probably took part in the Battle of Point Pleasant during Lord Dunmore's War against the Virginia militia in During the American Revolutionary War, he may have taken part in the siege of Boonesborough in 1778, which was led by Chief Blackfish, as well as the subsequent defense of the Shawnee village of Chillicothe in In the Northwest Indian War, Black Hoof was defeated by "Mad" Anthony Wayne and, following the collapse of the Indian confederation, surrendered in 1795. Like Little Turtle of the Miamis, Black Hoof decided that American Indians needed to adapt culturally to the ways of the whites in order to prevent decimation through warfare. During his later years, Black Hoof became an ally of the United States and was responsible for keeping the majority of the Shawnee nation from joining "Tecumseh's War", which became part of the War of 1812. Black Hoof resisted the policy of Indian removal that the United States implemented soon after the War of He never signed a removal treaty, and continued to lead his tribe until his death in Saint Johns, Ohio in After his death, the Shawnee were eventually compelled to emigrate to the West.” This image of Chief Black Hoof is a lithograph published in “History of the Indian Tribes of North America”.

Shawnee History - A Brief Timeline - 1600s
･1000: Woodland Period including the Adena and Hopewell cultures established along rivers in the Northeastern and Midwestern United States which included trade exchange systems ･1677: French trader Claude-Charles Le Roy Bacqueville de la Potherie made the first white contact and established good relations with the tribe ･1670's: The Shawnee trade extensively with the French ･1689: The French and Indian Wars ( ) erupted between France and Great Britain and their respective Indian allies. The Shawnee tribe, led by Chief Cornstalk, sided with the French.

･1763: Shawnees joined the Ottawa and other tribes in Pontiac's Rebellion against the British ･1778: Daniel Boone was captured by the tribe and warned to leave "Kentucky", he managed to escape ･1774: The tribe were defeated in Lord Dunmore's War along the Ohio River ･1774: The Americans defeated the Shawnee in the Battle of Point Pleasant (October 6, 1774) and Chief Cornstalk was killed. Blue Jacket emerged as a strong Shawnee leader ･1775: The American Revolutionary War ( ). The Shawnees fought with the British against the American forces ･1782: The Shawnee joined by the Western Confederacy of tribes including the Delaware, Wyandot, Miami, Ottawa, Chippewa, and Mingo. Their objective was to keep the Ohio River as a boundary between Indian lands and the United States and to remove settlers from Kentucky and Ohio ･1783: The 1783 Treaty of Paris ended the American Revolutionary War the British abandoned their native allies and ceded the land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River to the United States (the Northwest Territory) ･1785: The Northwest Indian War ( ) aka as Little Turtle's war erupted ･1790: "Harmar's defeat" - General Josiah Harmar was defeated in his attempts to subdue Native Indians in the Northwest Territory ･1791: Battle of the Wabash on November 4, American Indians were led by Little Turtle and Blue Jacket won a major Native Indian victory against Americans led by General Arthur St. Clair. ･1794: Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20, Major General Anthony Wayne defeated Blue Jacket and the Native Indians ･1795: The Treaty of Greenville was signed on August 3, following the Battle of Fallen Timbers in which the Native Indians were forced to cede much of present-day Ohio to the United States ･1795: The Treaty of Greenville was made on August 3, that ended the Northwest Indian War

･1805: The Treaty of Fort Industry was signed on July 4, in which Blue Jacket and Tecumseh relinquished even more of Ohio ･1810: The Death of Blue Jacket. Chief Tecumseh continued the Shawnee fight during Tecumseh's War in a final attempt to reclaim Shawnee lands in the Ohio Country. ･1811: General William Henry Harrison defeated the Shawnee and their allies at the Battle of Tippecanoe. ･1813: On October 5, at the Battle of the Thames, Tecumseh killed. ･1815: Shawnee are moved into Arkansas and in moved to Texas ･1830: The Indian Removal Act was passed calling for the relocation of all tribes to “Indian Territory” west of the Mississippi River. ･1831: August 8, Treaty at Wapaghkonnetta and Hog creek in Ohio. Land ceded and removed to land west of Missouri ･1832: Black Hawk War ･1832: The Treaty of 1832 called for the removal of all Shawnee to the west ･1832: Wapakoneta Shawnee leave Ohio and removed west of the Missouri River, into Kansas ･1833: Hog Creek Shawnee removed to Kansas ･ : supported the Union during the Civil War ･1867: Shawnee located on three reservations in Indian Territory. The Absentee Shawnee from Texas settled with the Potawatomi, the Kansas Shawnee moved to the Cherokee reservation. Other tribe members settled in Ottawa County, Oklahoma

Fort Washington General Josiah Harmar had this fort built in 1789 and it was named in honor of President George Washington. A young Tecumseh and several other Shawnee were sent by Miami Chief Little Turtle to spy on the Fort near the Ohio River. They climbed a nearby hill nearby and could look down directly into the fort and watch the men drill. From this Fort, several military campaigns against the Shawnee were launched. In 1790, Gen. Harmar was defeated by a tribal coalition led by Little Turtle. In 1791, General Arthur St. Clair, led a force to the location of Indian settlements near the headwaters of the Wabash River, but were routed in battle by a tribal confederation led by Miami Chief Little Turtle and Shawnee chief Blue Jacket. It remains the greatest defeat of a US Army by Native Americans. In 1793, General "Mad" Anthony Wayne led a force from the fort and defeated the Western Confederacy, an alliance of Native American nations, at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. Prospect Hill. WKRC’s radio tower is located here. The Deer Creek runs down this valley. I-71 now runs thru the valley and overlays the creek The Cincinnati Art Museum is on the summit of this hill This hill is now known as Mt. Adams

The Treaty of Greenville - 1795
The Treaty of Greenville was signed on August 3, 1795, at Fort Greenville, now Greenville, Ohio; it followed negotiations after the Native American loss at the Battle of Fallen Timbers a year earlier. It ended the Northwest Indian War in the Ohio Country and limited strategic parcels of land to the north and west. The parties to the treaty were a coalition of Native American tribes, known as the Western Confederacy, and United States government represented by General Anthony Wayne. The treaty is considered "the beginning of modern Ohio history. The treaty established what became known as the Greenville Treaty Line, which was for several years a boundary between Native American territory and lands open to European- American settlers. The latter frequently disregarded the treaty line as they continued to encroach on Native American lands. The treaty also established the "annuity" system: yearly grants of federal money and supplies of calico cloth to Native American tribes and thus institutionalized continuing government influence in tribal affairs, giving outsiders considerable control over Native American life. The Greenville Peace Pipe

Where are the Shawnee Now?
While some Shawnee are scattered all over the country, today the three largest groups are located in Oklahoma. The majority of Shawnee were relocated to Kansas and then in 1867 to Oklahoma. Today Shawnee live in typical houses and wear typical American style clothing. As other ethnic groups, some go to cultural dances and traditional gathers. During the American Revolutionary War, many Shawnee (the Hathawekela) moved from Ohio to Cape Girardeau, Missouri, then in Spanish Louisiana. They evaded the Northwest Indian Wars that followed the revolution. These Shawnee were later joined by others from Alabama and Ohio. Moving southward, they settled in present-day Arkansas, Texas, and Louisiana. After the United States made the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, relations began to change. In 1825 the US offered the tribe a reservation in the Kansas territory in exchange for the lands they occupied. Instead, these scattered Shawnee groups migrated to Indian Territory. Collectively they became known as the "Absentee Shawnee.” The Shawnee Tribe were the last of the Shawnee to leave their traditional homelands. They also lived on the three reservations in Ohio created by the 1817 Treaty of Fort Meigs. After the Indian Removal Act of 1830 passed, those whoe would become the Shawnee Tribe, relocated to Kansas in August Their Kansas lands were drastically reduced in 1854 and broken up into individual allotments in During the Civil War many of the Shawnee Tribe fought for the Union, which inspired the name, "Loyal Shawnee." Instead of receiving compensation or honors for their service, they returned to their Kansas lands, only to find much of it taken over by non-Indian homesteaders. Three reservations were granted to the Shawnee in Ohio by the 1817 Treaty of Fort Meigs: Wapakoneta, Lewistown, and Hog Creek. After the Indian Removal Act of 1830 passed, one Shawnee band, who lived with Seneca allies near Lewiston, Ohio, relocated to Indian Territory in the July They would become the Eastern Shawnee Tribe.

Additional Shawnee History Resources
There is a lot written online about the histories of the Shawnee. I suggest the following; Histories Website - Content by Lee Sultzman Touring Ohio, the Heart of America The Ohio History Channel New World Encyclopedia By Petra Press By Elaine Landau Wikipedia By Rebecca Stefoff By Alice K. Flanagan By Sarah DeCapua

Indian Lore Merit Badge The Shawnee of Ohio
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Indian Lore Merit Badge The Shawnee of Ohio

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Indian Lore Merit Badge The Shawnee of Ohio

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