1. Transportation and “Local” Air Pollution Class 2 ECI 163 – 9/27/16

2. Severe air pollution in urban areas is an old problem Source: David Parrish, UC Boulder, Aug 2014, presented at CARB) China Central Television (CCTV) building Beijing January 2013 Air pollution in LA in mid-20 th century was likely worst in world … but now pollution in other modern cities is equally bad Los Angeles Civic Center January 1948 (Haze is caused by particulate matter, PM)

3. China Central Television (CCTV) building Beijing January 2013 Los Angeles Civic Center January 1948 24-hour average PM 10 concentrations exceeded 600 µg/m 3 in Los Angeles (National Academy of Engineering Report, 2007) Peak PM 10 concentrations exceeded 1150 µg/m 3 in Beijing (Zheng et al., Atmos. Chem. Phys. Disc., 2014)

4. Los Angeles Civic Center January 1948 Tremendous progress has been made! Ozone (O 3 ) exceeded 600 ppbv in Los Angeles (> 350 ppbv 8-hour average) 1.Severe air pollution in urban areas is an old problem O 3 seldom if ever has exceeded 200 ppbv in Beijing

5. What control efforts led to AQ improvement in LA? Emissions from all sources addressed! -Open burning banned -Industrial emissions controlled -Power plant emissions controlled or moved elsewhere -Motor vehicle emissions reduced dramatically

6. AQ Problems Are Not the Same Everywhere Beijing has particulate matter problem LA has ozone problem 6

7. Is Air Pollution Solved in US? What More Needs to be Done? Continued Progress is Difficult: Many critical processes relating to pollution are not well understood. Often, pollution’s adverse effects are felt by people who had no role in emitting it. Trucks are especially challenging 7

8. 1940s Los Angeles- An Unhealthy Problem County air pollution control districts established 2.8 million vehicles 8

9. 9 Deadly 1952 Great London Fog Source: Wilkins, 1954, taken from: http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/.../Urban_Air_Quality.pdf http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/.../Urban_Air_Quality.pdf

10. 1950s: Photochemical smog described by Prof. Arie Haagen-Smit 4.5 million vehicles 10

11. California’s AQ Leadership 1947  Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District created First legislation in world controlling vehicle emissions  1959 1960  Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board created First req’t for emission control technology (positive crank case ventilation)  1961 1967  California Air Resources Board created Low-Emission Vehicle Program enacted (LEV I plus ZEV)  1990 1998  Low-Emission Vehicle Program revised (LEV II) Off-road diesel emission regulations  2007 2008  On-road diesel truck retrofit req’ts LEV III plus ZEV  2012 11

12. US AQ Regulatory History 1960s: initial automotive emissions control 1970/1977: U. S. Clean Air Act launches strong national AQ regulations (vehicles and stationary sources) 1980s: No major new AQ laws or regulations 1990s: Tightened light and heavy duty stds 2000s: Focus on diesel engines Today: Air is cleaner everywhere in US; gasoline and diesel vehicles emit a fraction as much pollution as in the 1960s (and still getting cleaner); Unhealthy Ozone and PM persists in LA, San Joaquin Valley and a few other locations in US Local air pollution is very different from climate change

13. Environmental Protection Agency State Agency Stationary Sources Area Sources Indirect Sources Mobile Sources SIP (state implement- ation plan) Regulatory Authority (US) 13

14. Environmental Protection Agency California Air Resources Board Local APCDs Stationary Sources Area Sources Indirect Sources Mobile Sources SIP AQMPs Regulatory Authority (CA) 14

15. Pollution Depends on Atmospheric Conditions. 15

16. How to Reduce Air Pollution What is regulated? – criteria pollutants How to determine what is unacceptable? – ambient standards Basis for setting standards? – Human health, but how to determine what is acceptable? How is pollution measured? – Monitors (but where should they be located?) Who is responsible? – large emitters, or all emitters, or …? – Actual operator/owner of source? or supplier of equipment/facility? Should all equipment/cars be required to meet same standard? – Or should it be based on where they are used and who and how many people are affected? Better approach to reduce air pollution (using economic theory)? 16

17. EPA Criteria Air Pollutants Carbon Monoxide (CO) Nitrogen Oxides (NO x ) Ozone (O 3 ) Oxides of Sulfur (SO x ) Fine Particulates (PM 10, PM 2.5 ) Lead (Pb) Later in course we address greenhouse gases (CO 2, N 2 O, CH 3, etc) 17

18. National Ambient Air Quality Standards Ozone8 hour average 0.075 ppm 1 hour average0.12 ppm [3-year avg of annual 4th highest daily max 8-hour levels] CO1 hour average 35 ppm 8 hour average 9 ppm PM 2.5 Annual daily mean 15  g/m 3 [3-year average] 24 hour average 35  g/m 3 [3-year average of 98th% levels] Sulfur DioxideAnnual daily mean 0.03 ppm 24 hour average 0.14 ppm 1 hour average75 ppb Nitrogen DioxideAnnual average 0.053 ppm LeadQuarterly average 1.5  g/m 3 18

19. Measurement and Determination is Complicated! “The Clean Air Act defines a nonattainment area as the area that is violating the national ambient air quality standard OR a nearby area that is contributing to a violation of the standards. For instance, the PM 2.5 standards are based on averaging air quality measurements both annually and on a 24 hour basis. The annual standard for PM 2.5 is met whenever the 3 year average of the annual mean PM 2.5 concentrations for designated monitoring sites in an area is less than or equal to 15.0 µg/m 3. The 24 hour standard for PM 2.5 is met whenever the 3 year average of the annual 98th percentile of values at designated monitoring sites in an area is less than or equal to 35 µg/m 3.” http://www.epa.gov/pmdesignations/2006standards/faq.htm 19

20. Transport is Principal Source of CO, NOx, and VOCs in Metropolitan Areas 20 Sources: US EPA, 2016. https://www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/air-pollutant-emissions-trends-data

21. Non-Attainment and State Implementation Plans Regions are monitored for levels of criteria air pollutants. If pollutants exceed the NAAQS threshold, the region is considered to be in non-attainment. States with non-attainment areas must submit a State Implementation Plan (SIP) to the EPA describing how NAAQS will be met within a reasonable time period. State Environmental authorities are then responsible for complying with the SIP and ensuring that attainment goals will be met. 21

22. LA used to be one of most polluted cities in world, but now many other cities are far more polluted 22 Source: WHO, 2016

23. Carbon Monoxide Colorless, odorless gas Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons High affinity for hemoglobin (210 times that of oxygen) – Interferes with oxygen transfer – More threatening at high altitudes Causes drowsiness, headaches, motor impairment Complicates heart disease Fatal at high concentrations Primarily a hot spot problem (disperses well) – Tracks vehicle activity 23

24. US Sources of Carbon Monoxide U.S. EPA, 2014 (https://cfpub.epa.gov/roe/indicator.cfm?i=10) 24 Anthropogenic CO emissions in the U.S. by source category, 1990 - 2011

25. 11 PM - midnight 11 AM - noon 7 AM - 8 AM Downtown Atlanta Marietta I-85 47 KM 45 KM GA-400 I-575 Bachman and Guensler, 1996 CO Emissions Very Localized and Dissipate Quickly (North Atlanta) 5-6 PM 25

26. CO Nonattainment Areas (1999) EPA Designation 08/99 Source: USEPA, 2000 26

27. 27 CO Nonattainment Areas (2010)

28. Carbon Monoxide Solved (in US)! Source: EPA, 2016 28

29. Oxides of Nitrogen NO X includes NO, NO 2, NO 3, etc. NO 2 - brownish color gas with pungent odor – Visible in long plumes and brown smog NO X from combustion – Approximately 90% emitted as Nitric Oxide (NO) – 10% as nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) – NO oxidizes to NO 2 within a few hours Directly damages cells in respiratory tract Converts to nitric acid (acid rain component) Major Ozone Precursor 29

30. 30 US Sources of Oxides of Nitrogen Anthropogenic NOx emissions in the U.S. by source category, 1990 - 2011 U.S. EPA, 2016 (https://cfpub.epa.gov/roe/indicator.cfm?i=15#)

31. 31 US Sources of Oxides of Nitrogen Proportions of nonpoint and point sources of N in selected National Water-Quality Assessment Program watersheds USGS, 2016 (http://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/wri944001/wri944001.html#HDR8)

32. Source: Larry Greene, Sacramento Metropolitan Air Quality Management District 2007 Sacramento Region Daily NOx Emissions On-Road Mobile – 57% Other Mobile – 32% Stationary – 9% 35% Total Daily NOx: 167 Tons/Day 11% 6% 32

33. NOx Emissions, California, 2016 33 Total NOx (tpd) On-Road Mobile NOx (LD/HD split) (tpd) Off-Road Mobile NOx (tpd) Percent Mobile Percent On-Road Mobile Statewide1464657 (135/522)50179%45% South Coast 419202 (50/152)15484%48% Bay Area25690 (20/70)11982%35% CARB, 2016)

34. NO 2 Nonattainment Areas (none) EPA Designation 08/99 Source: USEPA, 2000 34

35. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Organic compounds that contribute to ozone formation Also known as: ROG, ROC, NMHC, HC Excludes certain “exempt” compounds – Perchloroethylene and various CFCs – Methane, metallic carbides, etc. Natural sources can account for more than 50% of total daily VOC emissions (varies by area) – e.g. forest terpenes, broad-leaf isoprene, etc. Some VOCs are toxic air contaminants – e.g. benzene, toluene, 1-3 butadiene, acetaldehyde 35

36. 36

37. NOx + VOC = Ozone Formed by complex photochemical reactions (VOCs, NO X, heat, and sunlight) Colorless and odorless at low concentrations Strong lung, throat, and eye irritant Increased respiratory problems, asthma, hospitalization, and contribution to heart disease – Contributes to 80,000 premature deaths/year in CA Carbon-carbon double-bond breaker – Powerful disinfectant – Plant/materials damage (>$300 million/year in CA) 37

38. Good Ozone and Bad Ozone Different Altitudes, Different Effects 38

39. Ozone Formation: The “Quick” Version 39

40. 40 Ozone Formation is Nonlinear

41. 41 Ozone Formation Can be VOC or NOx Limited

42. Ozone Nonattainment Areas (2010) Source: USEPA, 2010 42

43. Projected Ozone Nonattainment Areas Source: USEPA, 2010 43 Proposed revisions to Federal rules will lower Ozone limits from 75 to 70 ppb.

44. Low-level Ozone is Falling Almost Everywhere in US, Including LA Area (“South Coast”) 44

45. 45 LA and SJ Valley Have the Worst O 3 Pollution in US Clean Cars in California (2010), Environment California & Environment California Research & Policy Center www.environmentcalifornia.orgwww.environmentcalifornia.org

46. 46 California VMT vs Emissions Clean Cars in California (2010), Environment California & Environment California Research & Policy Center www.environmentcalifornia.orgwww.environmentcalifornia.org

47. Ozone is Strongly Linked to Asthma 47

48. Ozone Also Harms Plants 48

49. Particulate Matter Chemical and particle size composition depends upon source characteristics Primary PM – Directly emitted into atmosphere Secondary PM – Forms from reaction of gases/liquids Defined in terms of aerodynamic diameter – PM 2.5 all particles less than 2.5 microns – PM 10 all particles less than 10 microns 1/7 the diameter of a human hair – “Ultrafine” PM: Less than 1 micron PM has direct health concerns (short and long term exposure) and is a major cause of reduced visibility 49

50. What is PM? Elemental Carbon (EC) – Soot or “Black Carbon” Organic Carbon (OC) – Hydrocarbon molecules that condense onto a solid core Sulfate – Diesel Byproduct, usually formed from SO 2 in exhaust Metals – Trace elements from combustion and industrial activity Natural PM – Dust from wind erosion, condensed sea salt Liquids – Droplets of moisture with ions dissolved in them, often acidic if combustion byproduct Pollen Other stuff – e.g. ammonium nitrate 50

51. PM 10 PM 10 is fine enough to enter the lungs and accumulate – Can transport toxic materials on particle surfaces Often formed by accumulation of smaller particles Lots of natural sources Typically precipitates out of atmosphere in hours to days 51

52. PM 2.5 Largely from combustion byproducts (e.g. exhaust sulfates and nitrates) Regional transport is an issue (days to weeks) Seasonal variability More closely associated with adverse health effects – Decreased lung function, hospital and emergency room visits, asthma, bronchitis, cardiac arrhythmia, heart attack, and premature death Combustion toxics are a particular health concern – Diesel particulate matter and diesel gaseous exhaust 52

53. US Sources of PM 2.5 Direct Sources EPA, 2005 53

54. Annual PM 2.5 Concentration Trend: Modest Improvement 54 Source: EPA, 2016 (https://www.epa.gov/air-trends/particulate-matter-pm25-trends)

55. PM 2.5 Nonattainment Areas - 2016 Source: USEPA (https://www3.epa.gov/airquality/greenbook/mappm25_2012.html) 55

56. Lead – Not a Significant Air Pollutant Anymore Toxic heavy metal Enters the lungs and bloodstream (inhalation/ingestion) – Bioaccumulates in blood, bones and soft tissue Damages the brain and nervous system – Significant problem for children Tetraethyl lead was used in gasoline as an anti-knock compound (improved engine performance/design) – Carried on combustion particulate – Still used in aviation gasoline Regulated because it fouled catalytic converters and interfered with the VOC and NO X emissions control Domestic automobile sources eliminated (unleaded gas) 56

57. Lead Nonattainment Areas - 2016 Source: USEPA (https://www3.epa.gov/airquality/greenbook/mappm25_2012.html) 57

58. Source: USEPA, 1994 Lead Concentration Trends 58

59. Health Effects of Air Pollution in CA 59

60. AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLANNING 60

61. FederalState (California)Local/Regional Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) California Air Resources Board (CARB) Local Air Districts [e.g. Air Quality Management Districts (AQMDs)] Air Quality Management Planning Responsibility is spread through different levels of government 61

62. California Air Basins and Control Districts 62 Red outlines: Physical air basins Shading: Local air districts

63. Federal Level Sets national air pollutant concentration standards – Areas not meeting standards are in “non-attainment” States with non-attainment areas mandated to create a State Implementation Plan (SIP) to get areas into attainment – Prepared by states and subject to EPA approval 63

64. State/Local Government State and local gov’ts adopt control measures to attain standards Differences in what emission sources they handle – Local: Mainly point sources (factories/plants) – State: Add non-point sources (vehicle emissions standards, fuel standards, smog checks) – Federal: Add interstate non-point sources (cargo trucks, planes, trains) 64

65. Environmental Protection Agency State Agency Stationary Sources Area Sources Indirect Sources Mobile Sources SIP (state implement- ation plan) Regulatory Authority (US, except CA) 65

66. Environmental Protection Agency California Air Resources Board Local APCDs Stationary Sources Area Sources Indirect Sources Mobile Sources SIP AQMPs Regulatory Authority—Calif is unique 66