2. Communication Communication occurs when all skills are used in concert, and work together. It is shaped by specific cultural contexts. Listening and reading are often catalysts for speaking and/or writing. Discussion often leads to written communication. All of these aspects of communication occur within a specific set of cultural perspectives that govern patterns of interaction among individuals and interpretations of the message.

3. Schema Theory This theory relates to the ways learners build comprehension of a text by means of their perceptions, background knowledge and prior experiences. How learners engage in the processes of comprehension and interpretation of text.

4. Three Modes of Communication Interpersonal = two-way oral or written communication and negotiation of meaning. Participants observe and monitor each other They make clarifications and adjustments in their communication Communication realized through face-to-face conversations and written correspondence. Listening, speaking, reading and writing can be involved with this mode.

5. Three Modes of Communication Interpretive = Interpretation of meaning in oral and printed texts when there is no possibility of negotiation of meaning with writer or speaker. Takes into account cultural context in which the text is situated. Can occur in activities such as listening to an authentic news broadcast, reading a novel, viewing a film. Clarification of meaning not possible due to the absence of creator. Requires a deeper knowledge of culture in order to gain cultural interpretation of the text (due to no active negotiation) Encompases listening, reading, and viewing skills; also cultural perspectives.

6. Three Modes of Communication Interpretive (cont.) Inferencing – thinking process that involves reasoning a step beyond the text, using generalization, synthesis, and/or explanation. Example on page 181. Inferencing allows going beyond the literal level to bring in personal points of view and cultural perspectives that pertain to the text. Interpretation also includes predicting, reaching conclusions, giving opinions and explanations, questions textual assertions, and relating the text to other texts or life experiences. Ideal for early grades (p. 181)

7. Three Modes of Communication Presentational = formal, one-way communication to an audience of listeners or readers. Speaking and/or writing involved. No direct opportunity for active negotiation. Giving a speech, oral report, preparing a paper or story, producing a newscast.

8. Back to Schema The term schemata is used to refer to the mental “connections that allow new experiences and information to be aligned with previous knowledge.” Simply put, the reader (and by extension the listener), must be able to link incoming spoken or written input to the knowledge and bank of experiences that already exist in his or her memory structures, or schemata. Listeners and readers draw upon the following as they attempt to interpret a text: Their knowledge of the target language (vocab., syntax) Their background knowledge and experiences in the world Organization of various types of discourse and coherent devices and transitional phrases. Hold information in their short-term memory Strategies to help them bring meaning to the comprehension task.

9. Back to Schema Bottom-up processing = meaning is understood through analysis of language parts; language processed in a sequential manner, combing sounds or letters to form words, then phrases, clauses and sentences. Is “text driven” and reader approaches the text by concentrating exclusively on the combination of letters and words in a purely linear manner.

10. Back to Schema Top-down processing = meaning is derived through the use of contextual clues and activation of personal background knowledge about the content of the text. Identifying key ideas and guessing meaning. It is “reader driven” and focuses on what the reader/listener brings to the text in terms of knowledge of the world.

11. Caution: Bottom-up Processing Can reflect and foster mechanical activities not associated with processing at all. Teachers and comprehension checks of a reading – often ask questions that are worded in such a way that students just simply look back at the text and find the answer. This strategy is called the “look-back-and-lift-off approach” (Lee and VanPatten). Readers rarely read entire passage and their comprehension consists of unconnected fragments of information.

12. L1 and L2 Reader and Listener Differences Unlike beginning L1 readers, L2 learners can us their prior literary experience, which can offer assistance. L1 focuses on processing in a single language, whereas L2 reading involves skills and experiences in both L1 and L2. In addition, studies have compared L1 and L2 listening comprehension. Readers and Listeners use “discourse signaling cues” which are directional guides to signal how readers and listeners should interpret incoming information. Signaling cues include previews, summarizers, emphasis markers, logical connectives. (p. 186)

13. The “Viewing” Process The interpretive mode also relates to viewing videos, films, plays, and television programs. Students who view videos demonstrate greater listening comprehension than do students who do not view them. Videos – positive effect on learning grammar in the FL. Videos as advanced organizers prior to the reading of a passage facilitate the retention of cultural information in the written text. Telenovelas are helpful; they can include authentic Spanish language and student showed greater confidence in generating output.

14. Important Factors for Readers and Listeners Topic familiarity – facilitates comprehension Pictures, video segments, cultural information – when these are used, students comprehend more accurately. Prior knowledge key in enabling students to recall what they read and to make more logical inferences.

15. Important Factors for Readers and Listeners Predicting = prediction or “activation of correct expectancies” Learners who interact with the oral or printed text through strategies such as predicting, skimming, scanning, and using background knowledge comprehend much better than learners who do not use such strategies. Figure 6.2 (190) – Differences between more and less proficient listeners.

16. Important Factors for Readers and Listeners Must have a “purpose” or “goal” Two kinds of reading that involve different goals and skills: Extensive reading – reading for pleasure, understand main ideas, find specific information, read quickly. Intensive reading – most often for information, to read for details, understand implications, and follow relationships of thought throughout the text.

17. Important Factors for Readers and Listeners Anxiety – Learners with higher levels of anxiety tended to have foreign language reading anxiety Recall less passage content, fewer important details, more off-task, interfering thoughts. Experienced when they encounter unfamiliar words and structures and when they have to read about cultural topics with which they are unfamiliar. L2 listening anxiety When oral input was too fast, poorly enunciated, different accents When exercises contained unfamiliar topics and vocabulary and complicated syntax Lack of visual support Only able to listen to segments once.

18. Important Factors for Readers and Listeners Length of text – longer texts may actually be easier for students to comprehend because they are more cohesive and provide more of a context from which meaning may be derived. Longer texts often contain redundancy and clues to content and broader scale of information.

19. Important Factors for Readers and Listeners Organization of the oral and printed texts – linguistic and non-linguistic signaling features are also important in a printed text. Linguistic signals – connections, transitions, summaries of ideas. Non-linguistic signals – graphic organizers (charts, graphs, pictures, diagrams, maps) and structural organizers (titles, subtitles, numbering of sections, boldfacing, underlining, margin notes, etc.)

20. Important Factors for Readers and Listeners Content and Interest Level – is the content interesting and relevant to the student? Does the content provoke a topic to be discussed and ideas to be shared? Students’ ability to comprehend and interpret was greater with the L2 text that was more interesting to them, and they were able to say more about the information presented in the text.

21. Implications for Teaching Listening, Reading and Viewing Students need pre-reading Students should be taught to interact with the text Students’ comprehension will increase if they use strategies such as activation of background knowledge Students have greater success if familiar with topics Students comprehend better when they make inferences Teachers should be aware of a load on memory that students may experience

22. An Interactive Model for Integrating the three modes Several Phases – Preparation, Comprehension, Interpretation/Discussion, Creativity, Extension. Preparation – activation of prior knowledge, setting a purpose, predict and anticipate events, predict new vocabulary. Comprehension – learners demonstrate they have understood main ideas through skimming and scanning Interpretation/Discussion – read the text and interpret inferences and author’s content as they exchange ideas. Creativity – opportunity for learners to use knowledge and reactions gained in exploring the text to create a product. Extension – students compare two texts in terms of content and organization. Also known as “intertextuality”